$H Acacia. Roman, Egypt

R. A term employed b= y some antiquaries to denote an object held in the hand of the statue of an empe= ror of the Lower Empire. It usually consists of a piece of cloth, which the emperor unfurled as a signal for the games to commence. (1883m1)

There are now several kinds in Egypt, but probably those mentioned on the monuments as She= nti and Ashu, were respectively t= he Arab “sont” tree, or = acacia Nilotica, and the acacia Seya= l. The flora of Egypt= being so limited, these were of immense importance as being almost the on= ly trees affording wood for carpentering purposes. The wood was also used for making statues. (1902b1)

$H Academic.

Academic. A figure is said to be academic when it is treated as a study, with perfect accuracy= but little inspiration, or when it is over‑emphasised and unnatural. A figure is academic in pose wh= en its attitude is the conventional attitude of the studio, when it has not been drawn from life, and does not harmonise properly with the subject of the picture. A drawing is of academic= size when its dimensions are those of the studies of the antique or life customarily produced in schools of art, i.e. a little less than half life= ‑size. (1891a1)

Academic. - ACADEMY-FIGURE. In the first sense, we c= all a figure of academic proportions when it is of little less than half the si= ze of nature, such as it is the custom for pupils to draw from the antique a= nd from life; any figure in an attitude conventional, or resembling those ch= osen in life-academies for the purpose of displaying to the students muscular action, form, and colour, to the greatest advantage. In the second sense,= we employ the term Academy-figure to describe in a composition a figure which the artist has selected and posed with skill, in such a manner as to exhi= bit his taste in design, but without strict regard to the character of the pe= rsonage and the voluntary action of the subject of the picture or statue. Sometim= es ACADEMY-FIGURE is understood to be one in which the action is constrained, and the parts without mutual connection with each other, as frequently ha= ppens to those who model from a study which was only intended to exhibit the development of certain muscles or members of the body. ACADEMY-FIGURE is = also the name by which we designate a figure drawn, painted, or modelled from = the nude solely, without any other intention than that at studying the human form, and as a part of academic studies. (1855f1)

$H Academician.

Academician. A member of an Academic Society. In England the term is usually employed in connection with the Roy= al Academy (q.v.), w= hose members are called Royal Academicians. (1891a1)

Academician. One who is a member of a society called Academy, which has for the object of = its discourses and labours the Arts, Sciences, and general Literature; and to whom the care and cultivation of these objects is, in some degree, intrus= ted. (1855f1)

$H Academies of Italy.

Literary societies established during the middle ages. The principal were the Accesi, Affidati, Amorevole of Verona, Animosi of Milan, Arcadi of Rome, A= rdenti of Pisa, Ardenti of Naples, Ardenti of Viterbo, Catenati of Macerata, Chiave of Pavia, Crusca of Floren= ce, Elevati of Ferrara, Eterea of Padua, Florimontana of A= nnecy, Granelleschi of Venice, = Infiammati of Padua, Infocati, Inse= nsati of Perugia, Intronati of Siena, Lincei of Rome, O= cculti, Offuscati, Ostinati, Rinovati, Sonnachiosi of Bologna, Trasformati of Milan, Travagliati, Unanimi. Their devices are described under the respective headings. (1883m1)

$H Academy.

Academy, a grove in Athens, where Plato taught, named after a local hero named A= cademus. The term was then applied to Plato's school, and later on to any society = of littérateur= s, scientific men, or artists. It also denotes a school of art, where public courses of instruction are given in drawing, painting, sculpture, and architecture. The first Academy of Art established in Eur= ope was founded in 1345 by the Venetian painters, who formed themselves into a society called the Guild of St. Luke. In Paris, a society of St. Luke was established in 1391, which was organised in 1648 under royal patronage in= to the "Academy of Fine Art." in 1671 the Academy of Architecture, which had been established by Colbert, was incorporated in it, and the un= ited institutions formed the fourth class of the Institute of France. Most of = the important cities of Europe have now their Academy of Art. (1891a1)

Academy. This term was applied to all great schools, scientific societies, and institutions. It was first given to schools of = Art in Italy, the earliest being the old Florentine Academy, which was only a kind of learned AEsthetic Society, founded by the Venetian painters in 13= 45, under the title of "the Society of St. Luke," which was greatly= encouraged by the Government, and protected by the important and princely house of Medici. We must mention the Academy of San Luca, still existing at= Rome, founded by Frederick Zucchero in 1593; but whose real existence, after slumbering a hundred years, began with Marratti. Of the early Academies for the study = of Art we may note that at Milan, attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, but existing previous to his birth. In 1= 391, the French artists, in imitation of their Florentine brethren, formed themselves into a Society, called also the Academy of St. Luke, which= was elevated, in 1648, by Louis XIV. into the Paris "Royal Academy of Painting;" the same sovereign founding also a Royal Academy of Architecture in 1671. The most ancient German<= /st1:PlaceName> Academy is that at Nuremberg, founded in 1662. That at <= st1:State w:st=3D"on">Berlin was first established in 1694; that at Dresden in 1697.= At Padua, an Academy of Painting was founded in 1710; another at Bologna, in= 1712; at Augsburg, in the same year; at Parma, in 1716; at Vienna, in 1726; at = Madrid, in 1752; at Copenhagen, in 1754; at St. Petersburgh, in 1757; at Manheim,= in the same year; at Stuttgard, in 1761; at Brussels, in 1770; at Munich, in= the same year; at Cassel, in 1775; at Mantua, in 1769; at Turin, in 1777; at Bordeaux, in 1781; and at Weimar, in the same year. There are also old-established schools at Leipsig, Ghent, Bruges, Antwerp, &c., whose date is not so clearly ascertained, but which are of that early foundation to be expected in that important home of the Arts in the middle ages. In Edinburgh, an Academy was founded in 1754; but we possessed in London nothing of the kind till George III. founded the present Royal Academy in 1768; which was the triumphant result of a long struggle by a body of artists, who, early in the century, established a school principally for = the advantage of drawing from the living model. The first public exhibition of English Art was in April, 1760, in the rooms of the Society of Arts, the admission being free, and the catalogue sixpence; the following year, the catalogue was raised to a shilling, and no admission without its purchase; the third exhibition was at once charged an admission-fee of one shilling; and so it has since continued. The first President was Sir Joshua Reynold= s.*

* See SCHOOLS OF ART. (1855f1)

--- $H Academy, Royal.

Academy, Royal, was founded in London in 1768 by George III. Its fir= st president was Sir Joshua Reynolds, and it consisted of forty members. Its object was to give art‑teaching, and especially to instruct in draw= ing from the living model, and to hold exhibitions of English Art. It was at first located in Trafalg= ar Square, where the National Gallery now is, b= ut its present head‑quarters are at Burlington House. (1891a1)

$H Academy-Figure [See Academic - Editor]

$H Acaena. Greek

Gr. (= •6= "\= <0[=3Dakaene]), a measuring‑rod; t= en Greek feet in length. (1883m1)

$H Acanthon. Egypt

An Egyptian city, in the Memphite nome of the Heptanomos. (1876c1)

$H Acanthus. Graeco-= Roman Architecture

Acanthus. Gr. and R. (= •6= ¬[=3Dake], a point), and (–<= 2@= H[=3Danthos], a flower). A plant, the ornamental foliage of which has been largely empl= oyed as an architectural decoration by different peoples. The acanthus has been applied to the ornamentation of friezes, cornices, modillions, and various other members of architecture, but in especial to the decoration of modillions (projecting brackets) (Fig. 4) and of Corinthian and composite capitals. There are several varieties of the acanthus; those most in use = are the cultivated acanthus, or Brank‑ursine (Acanthus mollis),= and the spring acanthus (Acanthus spi= nosa), the foliage of which is much less beautiful, and furnished with small spi= kes which make the plant resemble a thistle. This last has also often been ap= plied to decoration, in the Romano‑Byzantine and lanceolated styles of architecture. An English name for this ornament is the "bear's claw." Fig. 4. Architectural acanthus. Fig. 5. Bracket decorated with acanthus= . (1883m1)

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Acanthus. (Arch.) The acanthus is a plant of distinctly marked foliage, which is frequently found as a motif in architectural decoration, its place is preeminent= ly on capitals, and it serves as the distinguishing mark of the Corinthian order. Vitruvius has handed down to us a curi= ous legend in connection with the origin of this order. According to this aut= hor, Callimachus, who flourished about 440 B.C., w= as inspired with the idea of the Corinthian capital from seeing on a young girl's tomb a basket covered with a tile and surrounded with acanthus lea= ves. It is probable, however, that the invention of this capital was but a modification of motifs alread= y well known in Egypt. Modern architects have employed the acanthus for purposes of ornamentation under every aspect. They have represented it as pointing downwards or upwards, and with its leaves either folded up or turned back. In fact the acanthus may be termed the classical foliage of decorative sculpture. 2 <= /span>ILLUS. acanthus1, acanthus2 (1891a1)

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Acanthus. The bear's claw: a plant used in Greece and Italy on account of its beautiful indented leaves and graceful growth for garden plots, and also in works of Art for the borders of embroidered gar= ments, the edges of vases, for wreaths round drinking-cups; and in Architecture = for ornamenting the capitals of columns,* particularly those of the Corinthian order, and the Roman, or Composite, = which sprang from it. The type of the Corinthian capital may be found on numero= us Egyptian capitals, which resemble it, as is shown in the annexed woodcut.= The decoration is here also obtained from a study of the vegetable tribe.†

* = Fig. 1 Illustrates the fancied origin of the Corinthian capital in Greece. An offering to the manes of a dead child was placed over its grave, and cove= red with a tile, to protect it from birds. The basket stood upon the root of = an acanthus, and the plant grew and spread its leaves around it, thus sugges= ting the form of the capital. Fig. 2 shows that the idea of constructing a cap= ital from the leaves of a plant is much more ancient: The leaves of the palm a= re here chosen, and its form and disposition adapted without much change to = the necessities of a capital. It is from the Templ= e of Edfou, in Egypt= , but there are several other ancient Egyptian buildings which exhibit the same thing= .

† The cultivated acanthus (acanthus mollis) was that adopted in Greece and Italy for artistic decoration, in which countries it grew spontaneously. The mo= re modern gothic architects, sculptors, and painters adopted the wild and prickly acanthus (acanthus spinos= a) as according better with the sharp lines and geometric forms prevailing in their School of Art.(1855f1)=

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$H Acapna. Greek

Gr. (= "[=3Da], priv., and (6"= B<= ÎH[=3Dkapnos], i.e. without smoke). Wood for fuel, which had undergone several operations to hinder it from smoking when put on the fire. One of the met= hods employed consisted in stripping the bough of the bark, immersing it in wa= ter for some days, and then leaving it to dry. In a second method, the surface was rubbed with oil or oil‑lees, or else the piece of wood was plun= ged into the oil for a few moments. A third method consisted in slightly char= ring the surface of the wood by passing it through the flame. The wood prepare= d by this last process was also called cocta and coctilia. (1883m1)

$H Acatium. Greek & Roman

Gr. and R. (= •6= VJ= 4@= <[=3Dakation], dimin. of (–6= "J= @H[=3Dakatos], a light boat). A descript= ion of vessel belonging to the class called actuariae, i.e. were propelled either by sails or oars. The acatium was a fast‑sailer much employed by the Greek pirates. The stern was of a rounded concave form (inflexa), and the prow was adorned with a beak (rostrum). (See also ACTUARIAE.) = The name acatium was also given to a drinking‑vessel which was in the form of a boat. The Roman scapha was a similar vessel. (18= 83m1)

$H Acca.

A word used in the 1= 4th century for a cloth of gold shot with coloured silk, figured with animals: from Acre in Syria. (1883m1)

$H Acca= d.

Nipur was Calneh, in Accadian, &q= uot;the city of Bel." Accad was a district of South-eastern Chaldea, in which the Accadai or "Highlanders&quo= t; settled. It was opposed to Sumir (or Sungir, or Shinar) of which Nipur was a city. Mr. Smith reads Agane as Agade, and ide= ntifies it with a city of Accad; but I know of no ot= her Assyriologist who agrees with him. - A H. Sayce. (1876c1)

$H Accalu. Marduk<= /h1>

Accalu. "The Devourer." One of the d= ogs of Marduk, which was made into a god by the Assy= rians. (1876c1)

$H Accentuated Outlines. &n= bsp; Painting

(Paint.) This expression is applied in painting or drawi= ng to the strongly accentuated lines either of the drapery which covers the figures or of the different planes of a landscape. It is also used to indicate that the artist has by a few strong and firm lines converted a sketch drawn in rapid broken strokes into a finished drawing. (1891a1)

$H Accesi. Italian

It. (inflame= d). One of the Italian = Literary Academies. Their device was a fir‑cone placed over a fire, with the motto "hinc odor et fructus." (1883m1)

$H Accessories. Painting

Accessories. (Paint.) The accessories, in a portrait for example, are the drapery, the furniture, and the ground on which the subject is represented. Theoretica= lly speaking, the accessories are all those details which are necessary for t= he realisation of a scene, but which at the same time play a secondary part = in the composition. They should accordingly be treated with greater soberness than the principal figure, which remains the centre of interest in the picture. If a painter, in the portrait of a woman, for instance, bestows = as much care on the folds of her dress or on her lace as he does on her face= , he is guilty of paying too much attention to accessories. (1891a1)

Accessories. Objects and materials independent of the figure in a picture, and which, without being essential to the compositio= n, are nevertheless useful, whether under the picturesque relation, to fill = up those parts that without them would appear naked, to establish a balance between the masses, to form the contrast, to contribute to the harmony of colours, and so add to the splendour and richness of a picture; or, under= the relation of poetic composition, to facilitate the understanding of the subject, recalling some one of the circumstances which have preceded, or which will follow the action; to make known the condition and habits of t= he figures; to characterise their general manners, and, through them, the age and country in which the action takes place, &c.; such are draperies variously adjusted, trophies affixed to the walls, devices, sculptured divinities, furniture, carpets, lamps, groups of vases, arms, utensils, &c. Every object and material, not absolutely necessary to the direct narrative, is accessory. Of a painter who employs and executes these objects effectively we say that he= is successful in his accessories, which also includes all the parts of the adjustment of the figures, the draperies excepted. Some authors rank among the accessories all which is not an essential part of the subject of the composition, as well as the figures which are not necessary to the action; but in this sense the word accessory is used adjectively, ceases to be technical, and takes a general acceptation.*

* = "In the early ages of Art, few accessories were employed, and those of the simplest kind; but, in later times, the accessories have become more and = more important, till we find the figures which tell the story merely accessori= es in a landscape or piece of architecture, as in Wilson's 'Niobe,' (N. G. 1= 10), in Caravaggio's picture of 'Christ and his Disciples at Emmaus,' (N. G. 1= 72), the supper on the table, which is a mere circumstance, divides our attent= ion with the principal action. When accessories are introduced without any meaning or motive, and in direct opposition to the sentiment of the subje= ct, it is an instance of bad taste. Paul Veronese perpetually sinned in this manner, as did Rubens, and as do, generally, the Dutch and Flemish painte= rs. Hogarth is very remarkable for the ingenious use of accessories, though a= pt to overload with them his subject for the sake of being intelligible.&quo= t; - Mrs. Jamieson.(1855f1)

$H Accetta. Mediaeval

Med. Lat. A battle&#= 8209;axe, or hache‑d'armes. (1883m1)

$H Accidental Colour. [See also Complementary (Colours) - Editor]

Accidental or comple= mentary color, the prismatic complement of a ray of light: such are orange to blue, green to red, and, purple to yellow. (1883m1)

Accidental colour is the name given to that which an object appears to have when seen by an eye which at the time is strongly = affected by some particular colour: thus, if we look for a short time upon any bri= ght object, such as a wafer on a sheet of paper, and then direct the eye to another part of the paper, a similar wafer will be seen, but of a differe= nt colour, and this will always be what is called its COMPLEMENTARY or ACCIDENTAL COLOUR; thus, if the wafer be blue, the imaginary spot will be orange= ; if red, it will be changed in= to green; yellow, it will appear purple. The elucidation of this interesting subject belongs to the science of Opt= ics. (1855f1)

$H Accidental Light. Painting

Accidental Light. An= effect of light in a picture independent of the principal light, such as that on= the Holy Child in the Notte of Correggio, or that of a candle, &c. (1= 883m1)

Accidental Light. Secondary lights, which are not ac= counted for by the prevalent etfect; effects of light other than ordinary dayligh= t, such as the rays of the sun darting through a cloud, or between the leave= s of a thicket of trees, or such as penetrates through an opening into a chamb= er otherwise obscure; the effect of moonlight, candlelight, or burning bodie= s. (1855f1)

Accidental Lights. (Paint.) Real or fictitious combinati= ons of light and shade. When a ray of light throws into prominence the princi= pal part of a picture, it is necessary to connect this luminous portion with other parts of the picture by picking out with delicate touches various objects represented in it. The rays of light, illuminating the prominent parts of the picture, produce spots of great brilliance, which increase t= he picturesqueness of outline of the subjects represen= ted. In landscape, rays of light coming through masses of foliage are termed accidental. (1891a1)

$H Accidental Points.

Accidental= Points. In perspective, vanishing poi= nts that do not fall on the horizontal line. (1855f1)

$H Accidentals

Accidentals are those unusual effects of strong ligh= t and shade in a picture, produced by the introduction of the representations of artificial light, such as those proceeding from a fire, or candle, &c= .* In landscape the term is appl= ied to the representation of such effects as may be supposed to be transient, whether of light or shadow.<= /span>

* = In the celebrated "Notte" of Correggio is a fine instance of an accidental, in which the light a= ppears to emanate from the infant Jesus. In almost all Rembrandt's pictures these effects are exhibited in a very striking manner. (1855f1)

$H Acclamations. Christian

Chr. Formulas employed by the first Christians to express their grief on the occurrence of some misfortune, or on the other hand, to testify their joy at some piece of good fortune. These acclamati= ons were imitated from the nations of antiquity [e.g. at marriages, "Io Hymen, Hymenaee, Talassio:" at triumphs, "Io, triumphe," &c.]. (1883m1)<= o:p>

$H Accolé or Accollée. Heraldry

Accollée. Her. (1) placed side by side: (2) entwined= about the neck. (1883m1)

Accolé. (Her.) When two shiel= ds are placed side by side they are said to be accolé. This juxtaposition indicates the alliance of two families or nations. It is equivalent to Collared (q.v.). ILLUS. accole (1891a1)

$H Accosted. Heraldry

Her. Side by side. (= 1883m1)

(Her.) A term used of charges placed side by side. (1891= a1)

$H Accoudoir. Architecture

(Arch.) A French term signifying the ledge of a window or seat high enough to lean the elbow on. (1891a1)

$H Accrued. <= span style=3D'mso-ansi-language:FR'> Heraldry

Her. Grown to maturi= ty. (1883m1)

(Her.) Full‑grown. Generally of a tree that has co= me to maturity. (1891a1)

$H Accubitum. Roman

R. (ad a= nd cubitum, an elbow). A bed or rather couch of a peculiar kind, upon which the Romans reclined at meals, and which replaced the lectus triclinarius. It was a kind of sofa holding only a single person, while the lectus triclinarius held two or three. The act of reclining on this sofa was called accubitio or accubitus, a term derived from accubo, to recline at table. (1883m1)