$H Force.

FORCE. Boldness of treatment, or powe= r of handling the pencil in painting. Thus, we should say that Rembrandt's effects display force; or Titian's co= lour and style. (1855f1)

$H Forced.

A painted or sculptu= red figure is said to be forced when it presents a distorted attitude or exaggerated movement, which the artist has been unable to render efficiently.(1891a1)

$H Forceps.

Forceps. Tongs or pi= ncers, the attributes of some of the martyrs. (See FORFEX.)(1883m1)

FORCEPS. (= Lat.) Instruments of the nature = of tongs, originally used for holding heated articles. They are sometimes carried by saints, being emblems of their torments as martyrs. (1855f1)

$H Foreground.

(Paint.) That portio= n of a picture on which the objects nearest to the spectator's eye are represent= ed. In a portrait the foreground is the space, which is so rendered as to app= ear in front of the figure. The objects depicted in the foreground, being tho= se most clearly seen, should be painted with some care and minuteness.(1891a= 1)

$H Foreshortened.

FORESHORTE= NED. Viewed or represented at an oblique angle. Thus, if a figure be drawn as = if opposite to the spectator, with an arm pointing toward him, that arm would be said= to be foreshortened in describin= g it. (1855f1)

$H Foreshortening.

Foreshortening. The = art of representing objects on a plane surface as they appear to the eye in perspective.(1883m1)

FORESHORTE= NING. The art of representing objects on a plane surface as they appear to the = eye, depending upon a correct knowledge of form, perspective, and chiaroscuro.= It is one of the most difficult studies in the art of design, and, when exec= uted with skill, constitutes the excellence of the master. Michael Angelo, Rub= ens, and Correggio, were distinguished among other rare qualities for their sk= ill in foreshortening. They practised modelling for assistance in attaining t= his art. (1855f1)

Foreshortening. A me= thod of drawing or colouring used to produce a certain effect in the representation of objects and figures, the perspective of w= hich makes them appear smaller to the eye than they really are. All objects wh= ich project perpendicularly to the plane of the picture must be foreshortened. The arms of a figure, for instance, are seen foreshortened if they are extended directly towards the spectator. Foreshortening is one of the difficulties of draughtsmanship, and many art= ists, such as Michael Angelo and Rubens, have been properly celebrated for their skilful management of it. Foreshortening, which is difficult to comprehen= d or is disagreeable to the eye should be rigorously avoided. Sculptors, as we= ll as painters, have foreshortening to reckon with, not only in the executio= n of bas‑reliefs, but in the composition of any statue which is intended= to occupy a particular place. In this case the sculptor has to take into acc= ount the effect which his work will have in the position which it is to occupy= . ILLUS. foreshor(1891a1)

<= /o:p>

$H Forfex. Roman

R. (1) Large scissors or shears used to cut hair or = shear animals.

(2) A clip, in the form of shears, for raising weigh= ts. (Fig. 327.) Fig. 328 represents a shears described by Vitruvius, which was used to raise stones. Fig. 327. Roman Forfex. Fig. 328. <= span class=3DSpellE>Forfex.(1883= m1)

&nbs= p; &nbs= p;

$H Forge.

To forge metals is t= o work them by exposing them to the action of the fire and by striking them with= a hammer. There are in existence pieces of forged iron, which take a high r= ank among the masterpieces of decorative art. [Bickern.] ILLUS. forge(1891= a1)

<= /o:p>

$H Forgery.

$H FORGERY. An imitation of an original work, fabricated for deceptive purposes. Pictures, bronzes, terra-cottas, and coins, falsely purporting to be "true," continually occur. The extreme antiquity of "the art" may be seen in the base moneys of the earlier classic nations, = who punished the fabricants with cruel severity, but failed to prevent the labours of the dishonest "ingenious" of t= heir own day. In modern times, forgeries abound, particularly in antiquities, which frequently fetch so much more than their intrinsic value, that the inducement to the forger is necessarily great. Italy enjoys the distinctio= n of possessing the cleverest fabricators of modern antiques, which display an ability worthy of better employment. From the con= stant study of genuine works, and the knowledge of their characteristic peculiarities, the most perfect deceptions are here to be met with, and it requires little short of chemical tests, or positive destruction of artic= les thus made, to detect the imposture. In pictures, all kinds of tricks are resorted to; very old and worthless pictures are purchased, in order that they may be used as a foundation for fraud, an= d the purchaser be thrown off his guard by the genuine nature of the canvas upon which the work is painted. The newly-painted surface is toned down, or sm= oked in a grate, which also cracks the picture; and otherwise "antiquates" it. The custom of young artists to improve themselves by copying the works of the old masters, = is often made use of by dishonest dealers abroad, who palm off such things on the unwary as genuine. It is frequently the case that such students make extremely close copies, both in manner and style of = colour, of ancient pictures, which, when smoked and baked, sell well for "ge= nuine works," or "replicas by the original painter." Regular establishments are kept up by some dishonest dealers, and liberal pay giv= en to young artists, who show great talent as copyists. By constant practice= and study, such men acquire a dexterity which almost defies detection; imitat= ing the touch and style, the tone and treatment of the great masters so completely, that when their work is subjected to the finishing process of "antiquating" it (by the means to which we have just alluded) s= uccess is almost certain.

In the fabricati= on of antiques, bronzes, terra-cottas, and the varied articles which attract th= e virtuoso, similar careful ingenu= ity is shown, and every objection guarded against, by the proper study of the peculiarities of genuine articles of the kind in public museums, and their imitation in the minutest point. Thus, bronze statuettes may be modelled on correct artistic principles; then batte= red or fractured, to give them a look of age; subjected to peculiar treatment, to blister the metal, for the same purpose; and lastly covered with a false = patina, closely imitating that w= hich centuries produce on the genuine article. Works really wonderful for ingenuity are fabricated in this way, which testify to the studious inves= tigation of the forger, and his great knowledge of early Art. When completed, such works are sometimes buried in the ground, to be "accidentally dug up before the eyes" of eager collectors, who can scarcely believe the f= act of such a snare. With terra-cottas, a good mould from a genuine article, = and some ill-treatment of the thing moulded, is a= ll that is necessary. It is not unusual also to make up perfect antiques of a fine character, by adding genuine fragments to portions of the forgery, w= hich puts the wary off their guard, Thus, the handles or foot of a vase may be genuine, and the body of modern work. It is but lately that the writer was shown an ingenious deception of this kind, completely made up of genuine antique fragments. The alleged curiosity of the article was the circumsta= nce of its being a terra-cotta unguent vase, coated with glass, and having gl= ass handles. To produce this a genuine vase was obtained, and genuine antique handles applied; fragments of Roman glass were then secured to the surfac= e, and a complete look of age given to the entire amalgamation, by burying i= t in a dunghill, which produced iridescence, and gave a "tone" to the entire construction. Hundreds of equally ingenious tricks are practised, and when discovered by some unfailing te= st, that test is provided against on future occasions, and objections removed= by a fresh example of studious ingenuity. It= aly and France abound with such "clever men," who are constantly employed in &= quot;the art of deceiving well."

Forgers of coins= resort to all kinds of ingenious tricks; and when a false patina is obtained, and their power of imitation is exhausted, they sometimes make "unique" specimens, by cutting genuine coins, putting the rever= se of one to the obverse of another, and realising = large sums by the "rarities" thus constructed. In the old time, the forgers of coins produced them principally by casting a thin shell of gol= d or silver, and filling up the middle of the coin by base metal; but the mode= rn forger can now call in the aid of Science, and by aid of the electrotype process, and other means at his command, produce works which puzzle the cognoscenti, and completely dece= ive the ordinary collector. There is one test, however, with ancient bronzes,= of a simple kind; if rubbed, they do not smell like new metal; and false patina upon such surfaces may be removed by wetting; while true antique patina, being really an exudation of the original metal, cannot be removed by any such means; and if removed by a chemical solvent, it leaves a roughened or "honey-combed" surface, the false bronze exhibiting a perfectly smooth one, with which the patina= does not amalgamate. (1855f1)

$H Fori.

R. This term, which = is the plural of fo= rus, denotes (1) the flooring of a ship;

(2) the flooring of a bridge;

(3) the standingR= 09;places on a temporary platform;

(4) the shelves form= ing the divisions or different stories of a beehive;

(5) the narrow paral= lel furrows drawn in a garden by means of the hoe.(1883m1)<= /p>

$H Foricula.

A little door. Dimin= . of FORIS (q.v.).(1883m1)

$H Foris. Roman

R. The door as disti= nguished from the frame in which it hung. In the plural, fores denotes a folding&#= 8209;door with two leaves, as, for instance, fores carceris, the door of the stalls in a circus.(1= 883m1)

$H Forks.

Forks were not in ge= neral use earlier than the 14th century. One of the earliest occasions on which= a fork is mentioned informs us that John, Duke of Brittany in 1306, had one "to pick up soppys."(1883m1)

$H Forlon.

A Spanish carriage w= ith four seats.(1883m1)

$H Form.

Form. A term used in painting and sculpture to denote the qualities of line as opposed to colour. An art= ist who devotes himself especially to line may be said to prefer form to colour.(1891a1)

FORM. The external appearance of objects -= the quality that distinguishes one thing from another. FORM, in painting, signifies especially the human body. The study of forms, and the changes = they undergo by muscular contractions, require on the part of the artist the utmost attention and assiduity. The conscientious artist ought scrupulous= ly to avoid any tendency to exaggerate the superficial forms of the body; nothing is more simple, more calm; nothing sho= ws a grander breadth of design than the human body; the muscles assist by their reunion in the production of general forms; the special forms are scarcely visible. *=

* = See The Anatomy of the External Forms of= Man, for the Use of Artists, Sculptors, &c., by Dr. Fau. Translated by= Dr. Knox. 8vo. London= , 1849.(1855f1)

$H Forma.

R. (fero, to produce). A moul= d, form, or model; a mould for making bricks or other objects in clay, such = as (1) antefixa, masks, &c.

(2) a shoemaker's la= st;

(3) the waterway of a subterranean aqueduct. Diminutive, Formella, R. A small shape or mould used especially by the Romans to give an artifi= cial form to the fish which was served as one of the courses at dinner.(1883m1= )

$H Format.

The dimensions of vo= lumes. Books are generally made of a certain format, such as quarto, octavo, &c.(1891a1)

$H Formative Arts, The.

The formative arts a= re those arts, called by the Germans die <= span class=3DSpellE>bildenden künste, = which deal with the forms and materials of the external world. They are three in number, architecture, sculpture, and painting, and are at the opposite po= le from the arts of music and poetry.(1891a1)

FORMATIVE ARTS. Those arts which, independently of external wants and aims, yet, on the other hand, bound to the imitation of nature, represent life by means of the forms naturally connected. † "The general style of the Formative Arts is the result of a principle of selec= tion which necessarily limits imitation. Such general style consists, therefor= e, in qualities which distinguish those arts from nature. The specific style of any one of the= arts consists in the effective use of those particular means of imitation which distinguish it from the other arts. Style is complete when the spectator = is not reminded of any want which another art or which nature could supply." - Eastlake. (1855f1)=

† See Muller's Ancient Art and its Remains. (1855f1)

$H Formeret. Architect= ure

(Arch.) An arch which adheres to the wall in a groined compartment. The term wall‑rib is also applied to it. An example of a formeret will = be found in the cut to transverse rib [Rib, Transverse], where the arches ma= rked A A are formerets= .(1891a1)

$H Fornacalia.

R. A festival of bak= ers in honour of the goddess Fornax (oven‑goddes= s). It took place in February, the day being given out by the curio maximus, who announced, in tablets which were placed in the forum, the part which each curia had to take in the festiva= l. Those persons who did not know to which curia they belonged, performed the rites on the last day, called Stultorum feriae (the feasts of fools).(1883m1)

$H Fornacula.

Fornacula (dimin. of= FORNAX, q.v.). (1) A small furnace for smelting metals.

(2) A small furnace = for a bath‑room.(1883m1)

$H Fornax.

R. A furnace; an ove= n; a kiln for baking pottery: fornax calcaria, a lime‑kiln; fornax aeraria, a blast‑furnace f= or smelting metals; fornax balnei<= /i>, a hypocaust or bath‑furnace; this was also called FORNACULA (q.v.). FORNAX is also the name of the goddess of ovens.(1883m1)

$H Fornix.

R. A term having the= same meaning as ARCUS (q.v.).

It also denotes (1) a triumphal arch (arcus triumphalis);

(2) a vault or vault= ed room;

(3) a vaulted gate.(= 1883m1)

$H Forril.

A kind of parchment, specially prepared for bookbinding.(1883m1)

$H Forseti. Scandinavia<= /st1:place>

In Scandinavian mythology the son of Baldur and Nanna. He was the heavenly peacemaker. (1= 876c1)

$H Fortification. Architect= ure

(Arch.) Fortificatio= n may be defined as the science of protecting any place against hostile attack. Th= e principles of construction enter largely into it, but its connection with art is of = the slightest.(1891a1)

--- $H Fo= rtifications. Egypt

The two most celebrated lines of fortification are the one line in the Delta, made during the M.E., the ruins of which are still standing. It consists = of a long wall strengthened at intervals by small forts or migdols; the other is in Nubi= a, commanding the desert roads to the Red Sea, to Berber, and to Gebel Barkal, on the Upper Nile. (See FORTRESSES.)(1902b1)

$H Fortress. Architecture

(Arch.) A name given= to any artificially strengthened building or to a building the natural strength = of which has been taken advantage of by human ingenuity. The Tower of London is an admirable example of a fortress.(1891a1)

--- $H Fortresses. Egypt

Fortresses. From the earliest days the Egyptians erected fortresses against the incursions of the Asiatics, Bedawîn, and Nubians. The most ancient are those of Abydos and El-Ka= b. In the Delta a line of forts was erected under the M.E., and called the "gates of the barbarians." Above Aswâ= ;n,on the Nubian frontier, was a fortress calle= d the "gate of the south," which was commanded sometimes by the nomarch of Thebes, and sometimes by the "superintendent of the South." At Semneh and Kummeh, in <= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Nubia, just above the second cataract, Usertsen III<= span class=3DGramE>.(Dynasty XII.), erected two great forts immediately opposite to each other, to bar the water-way against the southern tribes. Most of the cities of ancient Egypt were strongly fortified - notably Thebes, Ombos, On, Sân and Saïs. El-Kab, the = ruins of which are still standing, is the oldest walled city in Egypt. The ruins of many ot= her fortresses are still in existence.(1902b1)

$H Fortuna.

A goddess worshipped= by the Greeks and Romans, and called by the former Tyche. In art she is represented as a draped female figure, holding a horn of pl= enty in one hand and a rudder in the other. Sometimes a ball lies beside her, emblematic of the sudden revolutions of fortune.(1891a1)

$H Forulus.

Forulus R. (dimin. o= f forus, a shelf). A cupboard, cabinet, or dwarf bookcase.(1883m1)=

$H Forum. Architecture

FORUM. (Lat.) An open place, used by the Romans for the transaction of public business, or the administration of justice. (1855f1)

Forum= . (Arch.) = An open space in ancient Rome, in which the assemblies of the people, elections, and other public business took place. It occupied a pi= ece of ground between the Capitol and the Palatine Hill. It was surrounded by temples and filled with interesting monuments. It has long been covered by the strata of successive civilisations, but o= f late years an extensive excavation has been carried on on= its site and many valuable monuments brought to light. The term was exten= ded in the time of the Empire to public places in all towns brought under the sway of Rome.(1891a1)

Forum= . R. A large open space used by the Romans as a market; it answered to the Gre= ek AGORA (q.v.). Fig. 329 represents the forum civile of Pompeii, unquestionably one of the most complete examples bequeathed to us by antiquity. A is the principal entrance; B, a Corinthian tem= ple; C, the public prison (carcer publicus); D is supposed to have been a horreum, or public granary; E, the tem= ple of Venus, the guardian goddess of the city; F, the basilica; G, H, I, the curiae, which were a kind of civil and commercial tribunals; K is a rectangular building which probably served the purpose of a shop for money‑changers; L, a portico terminating in an a= bsis; M, the temple of Mercury or Quir= inus; N, a building with a large semicircular tribune, which probably formed the residence of the AUGUSTAL= ES. Fig. 3= 29. Ground‑plan of the Forum at Pompeii.(1883m1)

$H Forus.

A synonym of FORUM (= q.v.). Forus aleatorius was the term applied to a dice‑table.(1883m1)

$H Fosse.

FOSSE. (Lat.) The ditch or entrenchment = of a Roman fortress or town. (1855f1)

$H Fossil Ivory.

The tusks of the mam= moth ‑ the extinct = elephas primigenius ‑ found in great quantity in Siberia, are the material of which nea= rly all the ivory‑turner's work in Russia is made. The ivory h= as not undergone any petrifying change like other fossils, and is as well adapted for use as that procured from living species.(1883m1)

$H Fote (or Foot) Mante= l.

An outer garment of = the petticoat kind, bound round the hips (of a woman on horseback) "to k= eep her gown or surcoat clean." (Strutt.= )

"A fote‑mantel ab= out hir hips large." (Chaucer.)(1883m1)=

$H Foundation Deposits. Egypt

The chief finds have been at the following places:- Naukratis; at the four corners of the great temenos, and two smaller ones at the corners of the central hall. - Illahun; on the site of a rui= ned pyramid, five pits. - Tell Defenneh; at the f= our corners of a fort.-Tell Nebesheh; at the N.E.= and S.E. corners of a "destroyed limestone building;" also at three corners, (not N.E.) and centre, of a temple built by Aahmes II. of the XXVIth = Dynasty. - Gemaiyemi; at three corners, (not N.E.) and centre of a building. - Dêr-el-Bahri; b= eneath the temple of Hatshepsut. - Kahun; in the centre of area of temple built by Usertsen II., a hole 31 ins. sq. by 4 feet deep, four sets of objects. - Alexandria; a Pt= olemaic find. A gold plate with an inscription recording the foundation of the temenos at Kanobos to <= span class=3DGramE>Osiris, is also of the Ptolemaic period.<= /span>

The pits in which the deposits were placed were usually closed by = one slab of stone, or, as at Illahun, by two slab= s with sand between. The objects deposited were: plaques of gold, silver, lead, copper, carnelian, green felspar, lapis lazul= i, jaspar, terra-cotta, and enamelled ware; pottery of various kinds, some evidently ceremonial imitations of larger ones; morta= rs; corn-rubbers; bones of sacrificial animals; libation cups; specimens of v= arious ores; mud bricks; strings of carnelian beads. At Tuk= h-el-Karmus thirty-two blue porcelain saucers formed part of the deposit. In the four deposits at the temenos of Naukratis were sixty-eight objects. In later deposits there are no carnelian beads;= but the model tools and corn-rubbers are still present. (See memoirs of the Egypt Exploration Fund.)(1902b1)

$H Foundations.

A term which denotes= the trench dug out to receive the walls which support a building from below as well as the subterranean portion of the walls of an edifice. Foundations = vary according to the nature of the soil on which they are constructed. ILLUS. foundati(1891a1)

<= /o:p>

$H Founding. Sculpture

FOUNDING. = In Metallic Arts, the process of founding is that of obtaining casts of an ornamental kind from moulds into which molten metal is poured. The moulds are generally formed in sand, because they are then capable of receiving the impression of the original matrix with great delicacy, and they allow an escape of the gases disenga= ged by the great heat of the metal, which might else burst the mould, or inju= re the work by air-bubbles. The making of this mould is an exceedingly delic= ate operation requiring much care and experience, as it is very liable to inj= ury; but moulds are sometimes modelled in clay - a much more simple process, b= ut not available for all work. (1855f1)

Founding. (Sculp.) T= he following is, briefly stated, the method employed in the founding of a statue. A pit is dug in a dry place, and sometimes lined with brick. A ru= de model of the work to be cast in the foundry is then made. This, which is called the core, only reproduces the attitude and outlines of the statue,= but is by no means an exact facsimile of it. It is generally composed of a mixture of plaster of Paris and brickdust, an= d is raised on bars of iron, which serve to support it. The core, when complet= e, is covered with wax of the intended thickness of the metal, which accurat= ely represented the statue and is obtained from a piece‑mould (q.v.), a= nd finished by the sculptor. The wax is then thickly coated with a porous clay. When the clay is dry the whole mass is baked, and dur= ing this operation the outer coating of clay which forms the mould is hardened, while the wax melts and is allowed to run off through tubes or vent‑= ;holes inserted for this purpose. These holes also allow a free passage to the a= ir, which would otherwise play havoc when the metal was poured in. The molten metal is run in through another hole left for the purpose, and as soon as= the mould is filled the metal is allowed to cool slowly. The clay coating whi= ch forms the mould is then removed, and finally the core taken out, a hole b= eing left in the statue for this purpose and soldered up afterwards. The found= ing of the statue is then complete.(1891a1)

$H Foundry.

An establishment whe= re the operation of founding or casting statues in bronze is carried on.(1891a1)=

$H Fountain. 1. Heral= dry; 2. Architecture

Fountain. Her. A cir= cular figure or ROUNDLE that is barry wavy= arg. is so blazoned.(1883m1)

FOUNTAIN. = A jet of water, or an assemblage of jets; the basin, or architectural structure, erected for the purpose of receiving and supplying water for any ornament= al or useful purpose. The French and Italians are most celebrated for the ta= ste and beauty displayed in their fountains, whether they be simple jets-d'eau or elaborate pieces o= f architecture, subservient to the purpose of supplying their cities with water. Many of = the latter, in Paris and Rome, are very remarkable for the bea= uty of their design, and the elaborate character of their composition. We have n= ot yet arrived at anything of the kind beyond the simply ridiculous. (1855f1= )

Fountain. (Arch.) A construction from which an assemblage of jets of water issues. In the Got= hic period fountains were constructed which resembled small pyramidal buildin= gs. At the time of the Renaissance and in the centuries which followed it fountains were placed in the midst of a portico and were surmounted by a frame‑work or cartouche of large dimensions. They sometimes consist= of a large flat cup of circular form or of several such cups placed one above the other. The Italians and French have produced the finest specimens of fountains, and in both Rome and Paris the maste= rpieces of this kind of art are to be seen. English people have as yet produced nothing in this direction worthy of note. ILLUS. foun= tain(1891a1)

<= /o:p>

Fons, Fountain. Gen. In antiquity, natural springs a= nd fountains were objects of religious worship. Fig. 323 represents a Pompei= an fountain known as the Fountain of Abundance. Fig. 323 Pompeian fountain.(1883m1)

$H Fourchée. Heraldry

Her. Divided into tw= o parts; said of a lion with a double tail.(1883m1)

$H Foyer. Architect= ure

(Arch.) A large salo= on in a theatre, which serves as a promenade and place of meeting between the act= s. It is only lately that the foyer has become a prominent feature in English theatres.(1891a1)

$H Force. FORCE. Boldness of treatment, or powe= r of handling the pencil in painting. Thus, we should say that Rembrandt's effects display force; or Titian's co= lour and style. (1855f1)

$H Forced.

$H Forceps.

$H Foreground.

$H Foreshortened.

$H Foreshortening.

$H Forfex. Roman

$H Forge. To forge metals is t= o work them by exposing them to the action of the fire and by striking them with= a hammer. There are in existence pieces of forged iron, which take a high r= ank among the masterpieces of decorative art. [Bickern.] ILLUS. forge(1891= a1) <= /o:p>

$H Forgery.

$H Fori.

$H Foricula.

$H Foris. Roman

$H Forks.

$H Forlon.

$H Form.

$H Forma.

$H Format.

$H Formative Arts, The.

$H Formeret. Architect= ure

$H Fornacalia.

$H Fornacula.

$H Fornax.

$H Fornix.

$H Forril.

$H Forseti. Scandinavia<= /st1:place>

$H Fortification. Architect= ure

--- $H Fo= rtifications. Egypt

$H Fortress. Architecture

--- $H Fortresses. Egypt

$H Fortuna.

$H Forulus.

$H Forum. Architecture

$H Forus.

$H Fosse.

$H Fossil Ivory.

$H Fote (or Foot) Mante= l.

$H Foundation Deposits. Egypt

$H Foundations.

$H Founding. Sculpture

$H Foundry.

$H Fountain. 1. Heral= dry; 2. Architecture

$H Fourchée. Heraldry

$H Foyer. Architect= ure

$H Force.

FORCE. Boldness of treatment, or powe= r of handling the pencil in painting. Thus, we should say that Rembrandt's effects display force; or Titian's co= lour and style. (1855f1)

$H Forge.

To forge metals is t= o work them by exposing them to the action of the fire and by striking them with= a hammer. There are in existence pieces of forged iron, which take a high r= ank among the masterpieces of decorative art. [Bickern.] ILLUS. forge(1891= a1)

<= /o:p>