Traveller's Handbook Egypt-Sudan 1907 Introduction HallR

A handbook for Egypt and= the Sudan

Sir John Gardner Wilkinson, John Murray (Firm), Harry Reginald Hall<= /span>

HANDBOOK FOR EGYPT AND THE SUDAN.

EDITED BY

H. R. HALL, M.A., F.R.G.S.,

Assistant in t= he Department of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, British Museum.

ELEVENTH EDITION,

REVISED, LARGELY RE-WRITTEN, AND AUGMENTE= D.

WITH 58 MAPS AND PLANS.=

LONDON: EDWARD ST= ANFORD,

12, 13, 14, LONG A= CRE, W.C.

1907.

LONDON:

PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWE= S AND SONS, LIMITED,

DUKE STREET, STAMFORD STREET, S.= E., AND GREAT WINDMILL STREET, W.

PREFACE TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION.

The original Hand-book for Travellers in Egypt (1847) was a reprin= t of Sir T. Gardner Wilkinson's learned and exhaustive work, Modern Egypt and Thebes, corrected and revised by the erudite author himself, so as to meet, as far as possible, the requirements of a guide-book. A few additions and corrections were subsequently made from tim= e to time, but substantially the Handboo= k remained the same as when it was first published for twenty years or more. = The great changes introduced into Egypt by Ismaîl Pasha, however, necessitated a thorough re-casting of the b= ook, which was now (1873), so to speak, merely "based" upon the work of Sir Gardner Wilkinson. Many hands contributed to the preparation of this and succeeding editions of Murray's Egypt, and full acknowledgment of this outside help was made in the prefaces of the editions of 1873 and 1880. With these editions are chiefly associated the n= ames of the Rev. W. J. Loftie, Mr. Roland L. N. Michell, Mr. Greville Chester, a= nd Mr. Phené Spiers. Many of the plans which appear in this edition were prepared by Mr. Spiers. The ninth and tenth editions (of 1896 and 1900) were edited by Miss Mary Brodrick, Ph.D., who revised the book with the assistan= ce of Prof. A. H. Sayce and Capt. H. G. Lyons, R. E.

The eleventh edition of the Handbook has been thoroughly revis= ed and brought up to date. The old division into two parts has been abolished. Many sections have been re-arranged and re-cast, as the Delta and Fayyûm routes, others have been greatly augmented, as Cairo<= /st1:City>, others almost entirely re-written, as Thebes and the Oases. In addition, a new section has been specially written for

vi PREFACE.

this edition on the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.= This carries the traveller from Wâdi Halfa, the terminus of the older editions, to the frontiers of Abyssinia and to the Uganda Railway and Mombasa.

The revision has been made as thorough and complete as possible. New paragraphs, sometimes of considerable length, have constantly boon inserted in order to record now discoveries or supplement a description already existing in the older editions. On the other hand, much that seemed redundant and no longer suited to a practical guide has been excised. It is hoped that this necessary work has not been carried out too uncritically. Everywhere what seemed to be the work of the earliest editor,= Sir Gardner Wilkinson, has been preserved, unless entirely out of date or no lo= nger corresponding to existing facts. The main stuff of the description of the <= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Nile Valley and its antiquities is still Wilkinson's, in spite of the additions and alterations of half a century. Of later contributions, Mr. Michell's comple= te description of the Cairene Mosques, which first appeared in the edition of 1880, has been retained almost untouched in this as in the preceding editio= ns. The section on Sinai, originally prepared under the supervision of the late= Sir Charles Wilson, has needed but few additions since Prof. Sayce's revision of some years back. Prof. Sayce's contribution of his archaeological notes de voyage to the later editi= ons has been most kindly continued by him for the present edition. To Capt. H. = G. Lyons's various publications as Director of the Egyptian Survey Department I am, of course, indebted for much information, especially in the case of his recently published Physiography of = the Nile Basin (Cairo, 1906), from which the distances on the White Nile between Khartum and Uganda are taken. I also owe to him several suggestions. For the Sudan I have consulted Count Gleichen's O= fficial Guide and have received private information from several friends, espec= ially Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge and Messrs. R. C. Thompson and P. D. Scott-Moncrieff= .

PREFACE vii

$$$ For Lower Nubia Mr. A. E. Weigall, Ch= ief Inspector of Antiquities for that district, and Mr. John Garstang have give= n me archaeological information, and the former has been good enough to read the proofs of this portion of the book. For Upper Egypt, Mr. Somers Clarke has = most kindly given me information with regard to el-Kab, and Mr. R. L. Mond with regard to his excavations at T= hebes. To Mr. E. R Ayrton also I owe thanks for items of information in the Theban section of the book, which I have endeavoured to make as complete as possib= le during my residence of several months there in connection with the recent excavations at Dêr el-Bâhari. For the Southern Oases I have utilized the published work of Mr. Ball, of the Egyptian Survey Department,= and for the Northern Oases that of Prof. Steindorff.

The main portion of the revision is the r= esult of my own observation and the consultation of the latest archaeological and other works, which need not be specified, available up to date. In this edition, as in all the preceding ones, the archaeological side of Egyptian travel is emphasized. But it is hoped that the rare tourist who is not particularly interested in the antiquities of Egypt will also find all the information ho needs in it. All information regarding the railways, for instance, has been carefully revised, and the particulars of the light rail= ways in the Delta are a new feature of this edition. The latest arrangements of = the Sudan Government Railways have been most kindly communicated by Capt. E. G. Midwinter, R.E., D.S.O., Assistant-Director of Railways at Wâdi Halfa. Also, all information as to hotels has been brought up to date. =

The maps and plans have all been carefully revised and often re-drawn in Mr. Stanford's geographical establishment. Th= ose of Modern Alexandria, the Mosques of el-Azhar, Tûlûn, and Kâit Bey, the Church of Abû Sarga, the Pyramids of Abusîr, = the Fayyûm, the Temple of Medînet Habû, the Tombs of the King= s, Aswân, and the Sudan maps are entirely new.

viii PREFACE.

$$$ The transliterations of ancient Egypt= ian and modern Arabic names and words which have been used are those most famil= iar to English readers, with one or two slight modifications. Thus, in transliterating the hieroglyphics, the symbols transcribed in former editio= ns by our z have been considered t= o be better represented by tch or tj, which certainly give a better equivalent of the original sound, which cannot have been very much like our= z. It has not been considered nece= ssary to continue the list of peculiar signs, and the rest, used by the German school of Egyptologists, which was given on = p. 91 of the last edition. It is useless to the non-scientific reader for whom the section on Hieroglyphics is intended. As regards Arabic, the use of q to represent has been abolished in favour of tha= t of , as less likely to cause confusion; on= e does not want to hear Kena pronounced "Kwyner" on the authority of the spelling Qina. The sound usually represented by "ay" or "ei," as in dayr or deir, shaykh or sheikh, has been more simply written ê : dêr= , shêkh - in order to avoid su= ch mispronunciations as "deer" or ''shike." The syllable -eh at the end of names has been regularly written simply -a. Th= e more correct al for the definite art= icle has, however, still generally been written el, on the ground of long use and custom. In the case of both Egyptian and Arab= ic words all vowels are intended to be pronounced as in Italian: a is "ah," not "eh,= " u is "oo," not "yoo," and so on. The explanation of the sounds of kh, , ', gh, will be found in the section on the Arabic language in the pocket at the en= d of the book.

Though everything has been done to make t= he work as complete and useful for travellers as possible, and to secure accur= acy, mistakes can hardly have failed to have crept in, and travellers are reques= ted kindly to send to Mr. Edward Stanford, 12-14, Long Acre, London, W.C., any information which may serve to correct errors or furnish fresh matter.

H. R. Hall.

July, 1907.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

I. Preliminary Information [1]

II. Geography [19]

III. Inhabitants [27] <= /p>
IV. Religion [34]

V. Natural History and Sport [50]

VI. Products [56]

VII. Geology [63]

VIII. Government, Education and Revenue [= 66]

IX. Industry and Commerce [71]

X. History [72]

XI. Hieroglyphs [110] <= /p>
XII. Ancient Egyptian Religion [146]

XIII. Archaeology and Art [158]

XIV. Bibliography [168]

SECTION 1.

ALEXANDRIA, THE DELTA, AND THE ISTHMUS OF SUEZ.

Route

1. Alexandria 1

2. The North-Western Delta: Alexandria to Rosetta 28

3. The Western Delta: Alexandria to Damanhûr, Tanta, Benha and Cairo 30

4. The Eastern Delta: Cairo to Zagâzig, Ismaîlîya, Port Sa&icir= c;d and Suez 38

5. Suez = to Port Saîd b= y the Canal 49

6. The North-Eastern Delta: = Cairo and Zagâzig to Es-Salhîya, Tanis, Lake Menzâla and Mansûra 71

7. The Central Delta: Cairo to the Barrage, Benha, Mansûra, Damietta, and Lake = Menzâla 76

8. The Northern Delta: Cairo and Tanta to Desûk, Mansûra, <= st1:City w:st=3D"on">Damietta and Lake Bûrlos 81

x CONTENTS.

SECTION II.

CAIRO, ITS ENVIRONS, AND THE PYRA= MIDS.

9. Cairo 86

10. The Environs of Cairo:

(1) Shubra 145

(2) Heliopolis and the Birket el-Hagg 146 <= o:p>

(3) Tombs of the Khalî= fs and Mamelukes 150

(4) Mokattam 156 =

(5) The "Petrified Forest" 156

(6) The Barrage 157

(7) Helwân, Tûrr= a, and Ma'sâra 159

11. The Pyramids:

(1) Survey of the Pyramid Field 162 =

(2) The Pyramids of Gîza and the Sp= hinx 164

(3) The Pyramids and Tombs of Sakkâ= ra and Abûsîr; the site of Memphis 187

(4) The Pyramids of Dâhshûr 2= 01

(5) From Dâhshûr to Sakk&acir= c;ra and Gîa (Camping Expedition) 203

SECTION III.

THE DESERT EAST OF THE NILE AND THE PENINSULA OF SINAI.

12. Cairo to the Convents of St. Antony and St. Paul in the Eastern Desert, by Beni Suêf 205

13. The Valley of the Nile (Kena, Kuft, &c.) to the Red Sea (Kusêr), &= amp;c. 208

14. The Egypti= an Coast of the Red Sea 211

15. Cairo to Gaza (Syria), by the "Short Desert" 214

16. Cairo to Mount Sinai 217

SECTION IV.

THE DESERT WEST OF THE NILE, AND THE FAYYÛM.

17. Cairo to the Natron Lakes and Monasteries 251

18. Alexandria or Cairo to the Oasis of Sîwa, or Ammon 258

19. Cairo to the Fayyûm 261

20. Cairo to the Little Oasis, the Oasis of Dakhla, and the Great Oasis, by the Fayyûm 272

CONTENTS. xi

SECTION V.

THE VALLEY OF THE NILE FROM CAIRO TO THEBES.

Route

Preliminary Information 283 =

21. Cairo to Luxor (= Thebes), by Rail 295

22. Cairo to Luxor, by River 2= 99

23. Luxor and Thebes 378 <= /o:p>

SECTION VI.

THE VALLEY OF THE NILE FROM LUXOR TO WÂDI HALFA. <= /span>

24. Luxor to Aswân and Shellâl, by Rail 475

25. Luxor to Aswân, the First Cataract and Philae, by River 477

26. Shellâl to Wâdi Halfa 519=

SECTION VII.

THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN.

The Sudan: Preliminary Informatio= n 542

27. Halfa to Dongola and Gebel Barkal 548=

28. Halfa to Khartûm

29. Khartûm to Port Sudan and Suâkin (Red Sea) 569

30. Khartûm to the Abyssinian Front= ier 578

31. Khartûm to Kordofân and Dârfûr 577

32. Khartûm to the Bahr el-Gazal, <= st1:country-region w:st=3D"on">Uganda and Mombasa 579

Index-Directory 587

Arabic Language and Vocabulary In pocket at end.

The sign * after place-names indicates th= at further information

regarding hotels, &c;., is to be foun= d in the Index-Directory at the end of the Handbook.

The black brackets [ ] denote that the pl= aces described within them are off the main Route.

INDEX MAP

London: Edward Stanford, 12, 13 &a= mp; 14, Long Acre, W.C.

LIST OF MAPS, PLANS, ETC.

Index Map Facing xiii

Egyptian Money Facing [7]

Hieroglyphs and Royal Cartouches [113] to= [146]

Illustrated List of the Principal Egyptian Divinities [151]

Plans or Egyptian Temples and Tomb [159] to [161] <= /p>
Lower Egypt Facing 1

Ancient Alexandria 5

Alexandri= a Facing 19

The Suez Canal Facing 59

Plan of Cairo (in three sections) Facing 89

The Mosque of El-Azhar 110

The Mosque of Sultan Hasan 115=

The Mosque of Ibn-Tûlûn 118

National<= /span> Museum of Egyptian Antiquities (Gr= ound Floor) 128

National<= /span> Museum of Egyptian Antiquities (Up= per Floor) 131

The Mosque of 'Amr 135 =

The Church of Abû Sarga = 139

The Environs of Cairo Facing 145

The Tomb-Mosque of Sultan Barkûk 15= 1

The Tomb-Mosque of Kâit Bey 158=

Topographical Plan of the Pyramids of Gîza 166

Section of the Great Pyramid 171

Temple of the Sphinx 184

The Pyramids of Abusîr, Sakkâ= ra, and Dâhshûr Facing = 191

The Tomb of Mereruka 194

The Tomb of Thi 195

Neighbourhood of the Monastery of St. Catherine, Mount Sinai 237

The Fayyûm Facing 261

The Little Oasis 273
The Oasis of Dakhla and the Great Oasis 2= 77

Schedule of Deep Channel Miles: Cairo to Asw&acir= c;n 292

The Nile Valley, Section 1: Cairo to Maghâgh Facing 299

The Nile Valley, Section 2: Maghâgh to Asyût Facing= 307

The Nile Valley, Section 3: Asyût to Farshût Facing= 341

The Temple of Seti I. at Abydos 368

The Temple of Ramses II., Abydos 361

The Nile Valley, Section 4: = Farshût to Edfû Facing 365 <= /o:p>

The Temple of Dendera 370

Thebes Facing 379

The Temple of Luxor 388 <= /o:p>

xiv LIST OF MAPS, PLANS, ETC. =

Karnak Facing 393

The Great Temple of Karnak 395

The Ramesseum,, or Memnonium 413

The Temple of Medînet Habû, Thebes 423=

The Tombs of Shêkh 'Abd el-Kû= rna 437

The Rock-Cut Tomb of Seti I. 448<= o:p>

The Tombs of the Kings (Bibân el-Mulûk) 451

The Temple of Dêr el-Bâhari 463

The Temple of Edfû 489

The Nile Valley, Section 5: Edfû to Kalâbsha Facing= 491

Aswân and its Environs 499

Philae 509

The Temple of Kalâbsha 5= 25

The Nile Valley, Section 6: Kalâbsha to Wâdi Halfa = Facing 525

The Great Temple of Abû Simbel 536

The Nile Valley, Section 7: Wâdi Halfa to Berber Facing 543

The Nile Valley, Section 8:<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Berber to Khartûm Facing 555

Khartûm to Po= rt Sudan: To Uganda and Mombasa Facing 569

HANDBOOK FOR EGYPT AND THE SUDAN.

INTRODUCTION.

I. Preliminary Information [1]

II. Geography [19]

III. Inhabitants [27] <= /p>
IV. Religion [34]

V. Natural History and Sport [50]

VI. Products [56]

VII. Geology [63]

VIII. Government, Education and Revenue [66]

IX. Industry and Commerce [71]

X. History [72]

XI. Hieroglyphs [110] <= /p>
XII. Ancient Egyptian Religion [146]

XIII. Archaeology and Art [158]

XIV. Bibliography [168]

I. PRELIMINARY INFORMATION.

1. Season for = Visiting Egypt.

From October to May is the best season fo= r a residence in Egypt. For those who intend to do the whole Nile voyage, and who can choose their = own time, the months especially to be recommended, both for climate and conveni= ence of travelling, are November, December, January, February and March. Daring those months winds from the North are more or less prevalent, which cool the air pleasantly and add to the comfort of travelling. A good deal will, of course, depend on the destination of the traveller after leaving Egypt. = If he intends going to Syria= , he could arrange so as not to get there before April, as it is too cold to tra= vel comfortably in Syria= before that date. The same may be said as regards Greece.

For those visiting Egypt for health the following plan is recom-

b=

[2] PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. <= /span>

mended: - Reach Alexandria early in Novem= ber, stay at Ramleh until the end of the month. Then go direct to Luxor, without any stoppage in Cairo<= /st1:place>, which is then unhealthy for invalids. Spend December, January, February and March at Luxor and at Aswân. Return to = Cairo in April, when, the damp of the inundation and winter having disappeared, i= t is healthy. For those who do not wish to go up the river a good alternative pl= an would be to go straight to Helwân or Mena House (Pyramids), both of w= hich places, being on the edge of the desert, are excellent health resorts. Leave for Ramleh when the hot, dust-laden winds begin to blow, and pass over into= Italy i= n May. It may be noted that Cairo is seldom unpleasantly hot until the end of June.

For those who propose to do the so-called "Eastern tour" completely= , the following average time-table may be given: - Arrive in Egypt a= bout the middle of November, and remain there till the end of February, going to the Second Cataract and back. Leave Egypt at the beginning of March, and go by way of Sinai and Petra to Jerusalem, arriving there about the second week in April. Five or six weeks in Palestine will th= en bring the traveller to Beirût before the end of May. Or he may vary the lat= ter part of this programme by only going to Mount Sinai, and instead of continu= ing the Long Desert journey - undertaken by comparatively few return thence to = Port Saîd and take steamer to Syria. And should he care to spend no more t= han three months in Egyp= t he had better not arrive there till December.

Of course these remarks are not intended = to apply to those who merely propose to see the country in the shortest possib= le time in which steam, the railway, and their own energy can enable them to accomplish it. They may go from London to the Second Cataract and back in s= ix weeks, and any one time during the months named above will be as good as another. But even to them it may be said, choose, if possible, the period between the middle of December and the middle of February. It is perhaps, everything considered, the most delightful season in Egypt. The temperature is delicious, often, indeed, cool, the Nile neither too high so as to cover the land, nor too low so as to look like a huge canal flowing between high bank= s, over which it is impossible to sea from the deck of either boat or steamer,= and the country is perfectly lovely in colouring - it is, in fact, spring time. Further information useful for invalids, as to the season for visiting Egypt, will be found under this section, § 13, Climate.

2. Expenses of= the Visit.

It is difficult to give any trustworthy estimate of the expenses of a visit to Egypt, as they must necessari= ly vary considerably according to each traveller's wants and requirements, and= the length of his purse. The cost of the journey to Egypt will range from 20l. to 30l. Hotel living in Egypt may be set down at from 15s. to= 25s. a day. Travelling by steamer or dahabîya on the Nile at from 25s. to 2l. 10s. a day; trav= elling on land by camels, donkeys, &c., and with tents, at about the same rate. The actual cost of the Nile trip by steamer from Cairo, including all expenses of food, sight-seeing, &c., may be roughly estimated at 50l. to the First Cataract and 20l, more to the Second. Travellers washing to visit Egypt as rapidly and cheaply = as possible, may do so in the following way: -

PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. [3] <= /span>

London to Ca= iro, viâ Liverpool and Alexandria, 1st C= lass return fare £26 11s. 6d.

Or 2nd class return by an Oc= ean Liner from London, viâ Port Saîd to Cairo £21 18s. 6d.

Cairo to Lu= xor by rail (15 hrs.), Luxor to Aswân an= d back to Cairo by Cook's steamer, with seven day= s' accommodation at the Luxor and Aswân hotels £17 0s= . 0d.

Aswân to Wâdi Ha= ifa and back by Government boat, with food and attendance £12 2s. 3d.

Halfa to Khartûm and back by rail (= not including meals) £20 10s.= 4d.

Monuments, tickets, bakhshîsh, &pou= nd;4 0s. 0d.

Ladies travelling together can very well = go 2nd class by P. & O., Orient, N. German Lloyd, and Austrian Lloyd Steamers = to Port Saîd and Alexandria. For fares see p. [4].

Several of the hotels in Cairo will take visitors for a prolonged = visit at reduced terms; so also will those at Luxor and Aswân.

At Asyût, Girga, and other minor to= wns, there is tolerable accommodation to be had at Greek inns for 5s. or 6d. a day. Anyone with a fair knowledge of Arabic can live in the country for from 3s. to 5s. a day, including a native boy to cook. This moans roughing it.

It is also possible, though fatiguing, to perform the journey by rail from Cairo to Aswân, making a break at Luxor. First class circular tickets for this purpose are issued in Cairo - fare, £41. 7s. 8d. The distance to Luxor is 417 miles, and the time occupied in the journey about 15 hours. It is 547 miles to Aswân, and the journey is done in about 36 hours.=

A tax of P.T. 120 (1l. 1s. 6d.) is levied by the Government on all travellers visiting the Monuments, Temples, and Tombs in Upper E= gypt, the proceeds being exclusively devoted to their maintenance.

3. Disposition= of Time.

The following table may help to give the traveller some general idea on this subject: -

Journey from England to Cairo 6-15 days.

Cairo and Environs 6-10 days.

Excursion to the Fayyûm 3-7 days. <= o:p>

(a) Voyage by steamer from Cairo to First Cataract and back 21 days.

Voyage by steamer from Cairo to Second C= ataract and back 5 days additional.

Voyage by steamer and rail f= rom Cairo to Khart&uc= irc;m and back 10 days additional.

(b) Voyage by dahabîya= from Cairo to First Ca= taract and back 60-70 days.

Excursion to Mount= Sinai 14-21 days.

The time occupied, therefore, in making t= he above tour will vary from 2 to 5 months.

b2

[4] PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. <= /span>

4. Routes to <= st1:country-region w:st=3D"on">Egypt.<= o:p>

There are various routes by which the tra= veller may reach Egypt from <= st1:country-region w:st=3D"on">England and the United States. The following = are the principal: -

(= a) DIRECT SEA ROUTES.

(1) London to Port Saîd and Ismaîlîya by the steam= ers of the Peninsular and Oriental Company, every Friday, touching at Marseilles, thence to Port Saîd and Ismaîlîya, during the season. Tim= e occupied, about 14 days. Fares (including food but not wine): To Port Saîd or - 1st class, 19l.; 2nd class= , 12l. Passengers returning within 4 m= onths receive an abatement of 20 per cent.

(2) London to Port Saîd and Ismaîlîya, by the steamers of the Or= ient Line, every alternate Friday, callilng at Plymouth, Gibraltar, Marseilles, Naples, Port Saîd, Ismaîlîya. Fares (including food but n= ot wine): 1st class 19l.; 2nd clas= s, 12l. Passengers returning within 4 m= onths receive an abatement of 20 per cent.

(3) Southampton to Port Saîd. - North German Lloyd's mail steamers: 1st class, 19l.; 2nd class, 12l. Return fares: 20 per cent. off the homeward tariff. The same company runs during the winter season a line of through steamers from New York to Alexandria, calling at Gibraltar and Naple= s.

(4) New York a= nd Boston to Alexandria, by the White Star Line, calling at the Azores, Gibraltar, Genoa, and Naples, twice or thrice a month. Fare, 1st class, from 40l. upwards.

(5) Liverpool to Port Saîd= and Ismaîlîya. - Fortnightly, by the Anchor Line. Fare, 13l. 16s. 6d. Return fare, 23l. 8s. Through return tickets, available for 6 months from Liverpool to Cairo, 25l. 6s. 6d. The Bibby Line, leaving Liverpool every 4th Saturday. Fare, 17l.

(6) Liverpool to Cairo, viâ = Alexandria. - The Moss Line, every = 21 days. Fare, 16l. 7s. 6d. Return, 28l. 14s. 6d. <= /span>

(7) London or <= st1:City w:st=3D"on">Manchester to Cairo, viâ Alexandria. - The Prince Line. Fare, 14l. 7= s. 6d. Return ticket, 26l. 14s. 6d.

(= b) CONTINENTAL ROUTES.

(1) To Marseilles, and thence by the steamers of the P. & O. Company to Port Saîd or Ismaîlîya, every Friday. Fares: London to Marseilles, P. & O. Express, 9l. 9s. 11d.: ordinary train, viâ <= st1:City w:st=3D"on">Calais, 1st class, 6l. 14s. 11d.; 2nd class, 4l. 12s. 8d. Marseille= s to Port Saîd<= /st1:place>, 1st class, 13l.

London to Br= indisi, viâ St. Gotthard, 1st class, 12l. 2s. 4d.; 2nd class, 8l. 8s. 2d.; viâ Dieppe,= 1st class 11l. 4s. 10d.; 2nd class,= 7l. 17s. 1d. From = Brindisi to Port Saîd: 9l.; through from L= ondon by the train de luxe, leaving C= haring Cross every Friday at 9 P.M., 22l. 9s. 11d. This is the quickest route from England to Egypt: the boat rea= ches Port Saîd on= the following Wednesday: train, 48 hrs., sea-passage, 56 hrs.=

(2) To Marseilles or Naples, and thence by the steamers of t= he Orient Company to Port Saîd, from Marseilles every alternate Friday, Naples= every alternate Sunday. Fares (vi&a= circ; Dover):= 1st class, 22l. 7s. 11d.; 2nd class,= 13l. 8s. 7d. Londo= n to Naples, 1st class, 11l. 3s. 8d.; 2nd class, = 7l. 15s. 1d.; Napl= es to Port Saîd<= /st1:place>, 11l.

&nb= sp;          Bibby Line: Marseilles to Port Saîd, 12l.

CONTINENTAL ROUTES (New line).

Viâ Paris and Marseilles, and thence by British turbine steamers of the Egyptian Mail SS. Company, Lt= d., to Alexandria= , viâ Naples. Weekly service to and from Egypt. = Through bookings from London. Sea passage, 3 days from Marseilles, 2 day= s from Naples.= Fares: Marseilles to Alexandria, 1st class, 12l. 12s; 2nd class, from 9l. 9s.

Murray's Egypt.<= o:p>

PRELIMINARY INFORMATION [5]

(3) The Messageries Maritimes Company's steamers leave Marseilles for Alexandria every Thursday. Fares (viâ Dover): 1st class,= 21l. 1s.; 2nd class, 13l. 18s. 6d.

(4) To Trieste, and thence to Alexandria, viâ Brindisi, by the steamers of the Austrian Lloyd Steam Navigation Company, leaving Trieste every Thursday, and Brindisi on Fridays= at 2 P.M. Through fares from London (viâ St. Gotthard) to Trieste or Brindisi= and Alexandria, 1st cl= ass, 21l.; 2nd class, 14l. 10s.; viâ Ostend-Vienna, 1st class= , 26l. 18s. 6d.

(5) To Marseilles, and thence by the North German Lloyd steamers to Alexandria. The German steamers leave Marseilles every Wednesday, calling at Naples on the Friday= , and reaching Alexandria on the Monday following. Fares from Marseilles: 1st class, 13l. to 22l.; 2nd class, 9l. From Naples: 1st class, 11l. to 20l.; 2nd class, 8l.

(6) To Genoa and Naples, and thence by North German Lloyd t= o Port Saîd; fares from Genoa, 1st class, 13l.; 2nd class, 9l.; from Naples, 1st class, 11l.; 2nd class, 8l. London to Genoa, 1st class, 7l. 7s. 5d.; 2nd class, = 5l. 7s. 5d.; 2nd class, 5l. 1s. 8d.

(7) To Genoa, thence by steamers of the Italian Steam Navigation Company (Florio Rubattin= o) every Saturday; Naples every Wednesday. Venice every alternate Tu= esday, and Brindisi every alternate Friday for Alexandria. Fares (viâ Dover): 1st class, 21l. 12s.; 2nd class, 14l. 17s.<= /span>

(= c) PORT SAÎD TO CAIRO.

Trains leave Port Saîd for Cai= ro thrice daily; fares: 1st class, 1l<= /i>; 2nd class, 10s. (P.T.48 1/2). T= he old Suez Canal Company's light railway is now abolished; and the ordinary expre= ss trains run through from Port Saîd to= Cairo.<= /span>

(= d) ALEXANDRIA TO CAIRO. Nine trains daily (see p. 30).

5. Requisites = for the Journey.

It is not at all necessary for the travel= ler to provide himself, before leaving England, with anything more than he would take for an ordinary foreign trip. All com= mon requisites can be purchased in the numerous European shops in Alexandria and Cairo. They are naturally rather more expensive than they would be at home. At the same time there are certain things which, though they could be procured in Egypt, can certainly be bought better and cheaper in England. These are: Cameras, thermometers and all instruments; field-glasses or tele= scope; magnesium wire and a lamp for burning it in (very necessary for properly se= eing rock-cut tombs and temples, without doing the injury to the sculptures and paintings that torches cause); clothes (see p. [17]); medicine (see p. [18]= ). A few useful and portable books may be mentioned here (for a fuller list see the Bibliography, p. [168]): - Budge's Mummy, Egyptian Religion, Egyptian Language, and History<= /i>; Lane's Modern Egyptians and Cairo Fifty Years Ago; Petrie's Ten Years' Digging in Egypt and Methods and Aims in Archaeology; B= ohn's transl. of Herodotus; Ward's Pyramids and Progress and Our Sudan; Slatin's Fire and Sword in the Sudan; Willmore's Spoken Arabic of Egypt.

Photographic A= pparatus on the small scale should b= e simple and strong. The ordinary Eastman kodaks are understood by the photo-

[6] PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. <= /span>

graphers at Luxor and Aswân, as well as at Cairo. Roll-films can be obtained at Alexandria, = Cairo, = Luxor and Aswân, and can be developed and printed by the photographers. They are, however, apt to suffer from the dry climate, and an ordinary box hand-camera, with falling arrangement, and flat films (much lighter than plates), is preferable on the whole. For instantaneous photographs a smaller stop must be used than in Europe, and a clouded sky is no obstacle to a good snapshot. For detail, a bulb-exposure = with very small stop (F 64 and smaller) is best. Moonlight photographs are always possible; in full moon twenty minutes' to half an hour's exposure with F 8 = or 16.

6. Passports. = Custom House. Antiquities. Arms.

Passports. - Though not required for <= st1:country-region w:st=3D"on">Egypt, passports are sometimes asked for on landing at the Egyptian ports, and are often useful in establishing identit= y, obtaining letters from the Poste Restante, &c. Passports are required f= or the Sudan only by those who proceed thither independently of the Tourist Agencies. Travellers from Egypt intending to visit any part of Turkey must have their passports visé by the na= tive Governor at Cairo, Alexandria, Port Saîd, or Suoz, unless previously visit by a Turkish Consul in Europe, for which the fee is 5s. Recently the Turkish Government require, in addition, a &quo= t;Teskera," or permi= t. The charge for the former is five piastres (1s.), and for the latter 12 1/2 (2s. = 6d).

Custom House.<= /span> - All luggage is liable to = be opened at the Custom House, but as a rule the examination is not inconvenie= ntly strict, the Customs' department being now under English control. There is a heavy duty on cigars, equal to about 3s. 6d. to 9s., according to quality, and great difficulty is made about admitting guns and cartridges. An ad valorem duty of 1 per cent, is levied on all goods leaving the country,= and 8 per cent, on all goods imported.

Antiquities. - Until recently antiquitie= s were not allowed to be exported, but now permission is granted on certain condit= ions. The Egyptian Government has approved of certain regulations for private per= sons and scientific societies desiring to excavate for antiquities. All unique objects found belong of right to the Museum; surplus objects and duplicates= are to be divided between the excavator and the government. Gold and silver obj= ects are to be equally divided, on the basis of the intrinsic value of the artic= les.

Arms. - Travellers must obtain pe= rmission from the Adjutant-General of the Egyptian Anny, War Office, Cairo, to bring their guns, rifles, or revolvers into the country. They must at the same time enclose a signed certificate giving numbers and description, and declaring that they are for their own private use. Gunpowder and cartridges are both of them a Governme= nt monopoly; visitors bringing them out for their own use must also apply to the War Off= ice, Cairo, for permission to bring them into <= st1:country-region w:st=3D"on">Egypt. = English sporting powder and cartridges can be bought in Alexa= ndria and Cairo; the former may also be obtained= in most of the large towns in Egypt.

7. Consulates.= Courts of Justice.

Consulates. - Each of the principal Eur= opean Powers is represented in Egypt by an agent and consul-general, who is accredited direct to the Khedive, and resides generally in Cairo. There are, besides, Consuls,

PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. [7] <= /span>

VALUE OF EGYPTIAN SILVER MONEY.

=

Equivalent of European gold in Egyptian s= ilver money:

One Pound Sterling =3D P.T. 97 1/2

20 Franc Piece =3D P.T. 77 1/6.

PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. [7]

Vice-Consuls and Conaular Agents, at the different ports and chief towns.

Courts of Just= ice. - Until 1876, the Egyptian authorities had no civil or criminal jurisdiction over foreigners, who wore only amenable to their consuls. Consequently, any foreigner accused of a ci= vil or criminal offence had to be indicted in the Consular Court of the nation of which he was a citizen. As there are seventeen of these courts, it is easy = to imagine the inconvenience caused by such a system, and the miscarriage of justice which frequently resulted from it. At the instance of the Egyptian Government, and chiefly through the exertions of Nubar Pasha, an internatio= nal commission was appointed in 1869, which recommended the abolition of this s= tate of things, and the appointment of mixed tribunals of natives and foreigners, for the trial of all cases between foreigners of different nationalities, a= nd natives and foreigners. The law is administered in these tribunals, which consist of Courts of First and Second Instance, according to the Code Napol= éon, adopted in Egypt with some modifications. The languages employed are English, French, Italia= n, and Arabic. The Consular Courts still continue to have jurisdiction in civil causes between foreigners of the same nationality; and in criminal cases fo= reigners are amenable only to their respective Consular Courts, the Mixed Tribunals being allowed only very limited criminal jurisdiction. In oases of any difficulty, the traveller had better apply immediately to his consular representative.

8. Money.=

Money.<= /b> - The probable expenses of = a visit to Egypt have been alr= eady spoken of under Section= I., § 2.

The money tables for Egypt, if put into the form u= sed in school arithmetics, would be as follows: -

10 millièmes make 1 piastre (kîrsh, pronounced in Cairo '&icir= c;rsh, in Upper Egypt gîrsh) - about 2 1/2d.; 100 piastres (kurûsh) make 1 Egyptian pound (LE. 1; ginêh, pl. gim'luil) =3D abo= ut 1l. 0s. 6d. The 20-piastre piece is usu= ally called rîyâl.<= /o:p>

The natives in the country still reckon b= y the old-fashioned paras, forty of which make one piastre. A half-piastre (5 millièmes] is often called '= ishrin fadda (twenty paras) by the fellahin, and wahid 'ishrîn ("one twenty") for short; P.T. 1 = 1/2 is in the same way called sett&icir= c;n fadda, or settîn ("sixty") simply.

The coins in use are - =

Gold (the British sovereign = =3D P.T. 97 1/2).

Silver pieces of 1, 3, 5, 10= , and 20 piastres.

Nickel pieces of 1, 2, and 5 millièmes, and 1 piastre.

Copper pieces of 1/4 and 1/2 millième (paras).

A Paper Curren= cy exists in the shape of the = notes of the National Bank of Egypt for £E.1, 5, 10, 50, and 100. The notes in circulation Dec. 31, 1904, amounted to £E.538,000.

The English sovereign is worth P.T. 97 1/= 2 and the French napoleon is worth P.T.77 1/5.

The Tariff piastre (P.T.) is universal in= the country as well as in all official statements. The Current piastre (kîrsh sa'a), an amount, not a coin, is a local usage of Cairo and Alexandria, and is gradually dying out. It is always reckoned as half the Tariff piastre.

[8] PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. <= /span>

$$$ There are a large number of bad piast= res in circulation, and care should be taken not to accept these.

When drawing money from a banker, English sovereigns or napoleons had better be taken. The napoleon is accepted: the sovereign is legal tender. Half-sovereigns are often not accepted by native= s, who do not always understand them.

Letters of credit and circular notes, bank notes and cheques, should be taken without charge by the bankers, but are p= aid only at the business rate of exchange of the day, which being subject to fluctuations, the holder will sometimes be paid at par, and at other times incur a loss ranging from 4 per cent, to 1 per cent., but very rarely excee= ding the latter. In the European shops at Port Saîd<= /st1:City> and Alexandria prices may be named in shillings or francs; elsewhere always in sovereigns (ginêh) and piastres. The 5-p= iastre piece is often called shilling and the 20-piastre (riyâl) dollar= . At Port Saîd a= franc =3D P.T.4. The metric system of weights and measures is universally used. The h= otel bills will be made out either in P.T., English, or French money. Before starting up the Nile, the traveller shou= ld provide himself with some small change for purchases, &c. The copper coinage, now greatly depreciated, circulates in the country at P.T.1 for 1 = 1/4 millièmes, and is entirely declined by the Government. It is used in making small purchases, such as eggs, &c.

The cheapest and best way to transmit mon= ey from England is to have it sent (in sovereigns) in parcels of 50l. or under by Parcels Post, insured for full value. This costs= 1/4 per cent. By Post Office Money Order to any office in Egypt t= he cost is 1 per cent. Bankers generally charge as much by exchange, commission, &c., and can only be drawn on in the chief towns.

9. Weights and Measures.

i. Measures of Length.

1 Dira'a Beledi, or Pik (for cloth, &= ;c.)         &= nbsp;   =3D 0.58 mètre =3D 22.835 inches.

1 Dira'a Miama'riy (for buildings)    = ;            &n= bsp;    =3D 0.75 mètre =3D 29.528 inches.

1 Kasaba =             &nb= sp;            =             &nb= sp;            =       =3D 3.55 mètres =3D 11 ft. 7.76 in.

1 Feddân =3D 4200.833 sq. mètres =3D 1 acre 6 rods.

ii. Weights.

1 Dirhem        &= nbsp;           &nbs= p;            &= nbsp;           =3D 0.003 kilo =3D l.76 drs. Avdp.

1 Wukkîya (12 dirhems)      =             &nb= sp;    =3D 0.037 kilo =3D 1.32 ozs. Avdp.

1 Rotl (144 dirhems)      = ;            &n= bsp;         =3D 0.449 kilo =3D 0.99 lb. Avdp.

1 Okka (400 dirhems)      = ;            &n= bsp;       =3D 1.248 kilos =3D 2.75 lbs. Avdp.

1 Kantar (100 rotls)      &= nbsp;           &nbs= p;          =3D 44.928 kilos =3D 99.05 lbs. Avdp.

1 Kantar of Alexandria (112 okkas)     =3D 1= 39.776 kilos =3D 308.15 lbs. Avdp.

1 Hamla (60 okkas)      &n= bsp;            = ;          =3D 74.880 kilos =3D 165.08 lbs. Avdp.

1 Himl (200 okkas)      &= nbsp;           &nbs= p;           =3D 249.600 kilos =3D 550.27 lbs. Avdp.

1 Tonalâta (Tonneau)      &nb= sp;       =3D 1000.000 kilos =3D 2204.62 lbs. Avdp.

1 English Tonalâta (Ton)    =             &nb= sp;   =3D 1016.047 kilos =3D 2242.00 lbs. Avdp.

Weights for Va= rious Metals.

1 Mithkal (1 1/2 dirhems)     &nb= sp;            = =3D 4.580 gram. =3D 72.22 grains T= roy.

1 Dirhem (16 kirâts)     &= nbsp;           &nbs= p;          =3D 3.120 gram. =3D 48.15 grains T= roy.

1 Kirât (4 kamhas)      &n= bsp;            = ;            = =3D 0.195 gram. =3D 3.00 grains Tr= oy.

1 Kamha, or grain of wheat     &= nbsp;            =3D 0.048 gram. =3D 0.75 grains Tr= oy.

PRELIMINARY INFORMATIONO [9]

iii. Measures of Capacity.

1 Ardeb (12 kailas)      =3D 198.000 litres =3D 5.44 bushels.

1 Waiba (3 kailas)      &n= bsp; =3D 33.000 litres =3D 3.63 pecks.

1 Kaila (8 kadhs)      &nb= sp; =3D 16.500 litres =3D 3.63 gallons.

1 Rub' (4 kadhs)      &nb= sp;    =3D 8.250 litres =3D 1.81 gallons.

1 Malwa (2 kadhs)       =3D 4.125 litres =3D 3.63 quarts.

1 Kadh (32 kîrâts)    &= nbsp;   =3D 2.062 litres =3D 1.81 quarts.

1 Nûs kadh              &= nbsp;   =3D 1.031 litres =3D 1.81 pints.

1 Rub' kadh      &nbs= p;          =3D 0.515 litre =3D 3.63 gills.

1 Kharrûba        &= nbsp;        =3D 0.128 litre =3D 0.90 gill.

1 Kîrât        &= nbsp;           &nbs= p;    =3D 0.064 litre =3D 0.45 gill.

1 Dariba        &= nbsp;           &nbs= p; =3D 1584.000 litres =3D 43.58 bushels.

1 Fard (large)       = ;       =3D115.500 litres =3D 3.17 bushels.

1 Fard (small) =3D 57.760 litres =3D 1.58 = bushels.

1 Litre =3D 0.005 ardeb.

1 Hectolitre =3D 0.505 ardeb.

1 Kilolitre =3D 5.050 ardebs.

1 Décilitre =3D 1.551= kîrâts.

1 Mètre =3D 1.742 dirâ'a beledi.

1 Centimètre =3D 0172= dirâ'a beledi.

1 Kilomètre =3D 281.6= 9 kasabas.

1 Gramme =3D 0.320 dirhem. <= o:p>

1 Kilogramme =3D 320.5 dirhe= m.

320 Rotls =3D 1 Ardeb (beans= ).

300 Rotls =3D1 Ardeb (wheat)= .

270 Rotls =3D1 Ardeb (cotton= seed).

Boat Measures.=

All boats on the N= ile are measured by Ardebs, 3 kantars making 1 ardeb.

10. Modes of T= ravelling.

Railways. - The first railway made in= Egypt was that between Alexandria and Cairo in 1855. Stephenson was the engineer, and he proposed it in conjunction with t= he direct line between Cairo and Suez, now disused, as an alternative for the Maritime<= /st1:PlaceName> Canal across the Isthmus of Suez.

The Egyptian Railway Administration (E.R.= A., the official style; on some carriages the initials E.S.R., i.e. Egyptian State Railways, are used) now has connecting lines running all over the Delta and into the Fayyûm, besides the branch li= nes from Cairo to Matarîya (el-Merg) and Helwân, and the main lines from Alexandria, Port Saîd, and Suez to Cairo, and from Cairo to Shellâl, south of Aswân, a distance of 580 miles up the Nile. <= o:p>

An electric railway belonging to an Engli= sh company connects Alexandria and San Stefano (Ramleh).

The total mileage of the Egyptian State Railways is 1,667. The gauge is the standard 4ft. 8 1/2in., except from Luxor to Asw&acir= c;n, which is 3ft. 6in.

The railways of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan = (see p. 540) belong to a separate administration, the Sudan Government Railways (S.G.R.). There are four lines, from Halfa to Khartûm North, running across the desert to Abu Hâmed, from Halfa to Kosheh, north of Dongola, on

[10] PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. =

the Nile, from Atbara to Port Sudan, and from Abu Hâmed to Karêima, south of Dongola. The total mileage of the Sudan r= ailways is 777. The gauge id 3fy. 6in.

The trains on the Egyptian railways are m= ade up of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd class carriages. It is quite impossible to travel 3rd class in Egypt, and British travellers rarely even go 2nd class, except in the Delta. =

The express trains consist of 1st and 2nd= class carriages only, and the fares by them are subject to an increase of 20 per cent, on the fares by the ordinary trains. The trains de luxe from Cairo to <= st1:City w:st=3D"on">Luxor take 1st cl= ass passengers only.

The bridges over the two branches of the = Nile on the Alexandria-Cairo line, the Embâba bridge, and the bridge at Nag' Hamâdi, on the Cairu-Luxor line, are t= he only structures of importance. The lines are uniformly laid on an embankmen= t of earth thrown up to the height of a few feet above the level of the soil. Wi= th the exception of the express trains, which are very punctual, time is not w= ell kept on most of the lines. The first-class carriages are fairly good. It is well to be at the station some time before the train starts, especially with luggage. The hours of departure are very seldom altered, but the time-table= had always butter be consulted.

The Light Railways in the Delta and the Fayyûm are managed by companies, the "Delta," "Basse-Égypte," and "Fayoum." The gauge is very narrow, the speed slow. The total of kilometres in work is 1,107. The Fayoum line, which is worked by an entirely native company, is bad. The other two lines are well managed, but punctuality is not to be expected. The miniature lines used to bring sugar-cane from the fields to the main railway in Middle and Upper Egypt do not carry passengers.= That running from Erment northwards on the west bank of the Nile is of the normal (4ft. 8 1/2in.) gauge.

LUGGAGE. - Passengers are permitted to ta= ke into the railway carriages, free of charge, such articles as may be placed on the racks. The weight of such= not to exceed 20 kilogrammes for each person.

Passengers' luggage is registered and is charged for according to weight. Where people can be independent of their h= eavy baggage, it is more economical to send it by petite vitesse. The hotel porter can always get it at the termi= nus by presenting the passenger's railway receipt, and the delay is but short. =

Roads.<= /b> - The chief highways of Egypt are the river and the railway, and t= his being so, there are no great roods in Egypt, and no roads at all, o= ther than the railway embankment and the edges of the desert, in the north to so= uth direction. The only metalled roads are those from Cai= ro to the Pyramids and to Shubra, and in the outskirts of Alexandria: these are the only routes on which driving can be comfortably essayed and on which the motor can be used= at all. There is therefore no scope for the motorist in Egypt. The country roads goin= g E. and W. across the valley are merely the dusty tops of the high dykes separa= ting the hôds or irrigation-ba= sins from each other; it is only possible to use them riding, foot-going being q= uite impossible. During the inundation they are the only possible means of passi= ng from village to village, except by boat, and when the inundation is falling= and boats cannot be used, owing to the shallowness of the water over the flooded land, they alone can be used, making long detours inevitable. When the wate= rs have subsided, however, bridlepaths, which vary from year to year,

PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. [11] =

become practicable across the cultivated = land. By such dyke-roads or gisrs and= paths or sikkan the tourist will ride= from Bodrashôn to Sakkâra or from Baliâna to Abydos, for instance.

Dahabijas and Steamboats.= - The great highway of Egypt, especially above Cairo, is the Nile, and sailing or floating along it in a dahabîya is still, railways and steamboats notwithstanding, the pleasantest way of seeing the country. Full particulars with regard to this mode of travelling will be found on pp. 288 ff., whore also information is given about the steamboats that ply between Cairo and the First and Second Cataracts during the winter months.

Donkeys. - There are many places, ho= wever, in Egypt which cannot = be reached by either railway or boat, and recourse must be had to that useful,= and in Egypt= by no means to be despised animal, the donkey. The Egyptian donkey is patie= nt, sure-footed, and very enduring, and his paces are generally easy. It is bes= t to use the saddle of the country, which has a hump in front, but ladles will generally prefer a side-saddle, and had better therefore provide themselves with one. As the native saddles are very apt to turn round, and girths and stirrup-leathers are apt to break, owing to the dry climate, no reliance sh= ould be placed on the stirrups. The usual donkey-fare is P.T.10 the day, P.T.5 t= he half-day, but at Aswân it is higher. Bakhshîsh to the boy is additional. In C= airo it is not usual to ride donkeys, except for excursions into the native city= .

Camels.= - For long excursions into = the desert camels will be required. The ordinary baggage-camel is very heavy and rough in his paces, and it requires considerable experience in camel riding before the Mehâra, Hegîn or trotting camel can = be mounted with any comfort. The paces of a quiet smooth-walking camel are, however, by no moans unpleasant.

11. Posts. Tel= egraphs. Telephones.

Posts.<= /b> - The Post Office departmen= t in Egypt is admirably managed. Letters can be despatched to and received from Europe 5 times during the week at Alexandria, viz., Austrian and Italian, viâ Brindisi; Italian viâ Naples; French, viâ Marseilles; Khedivial, viâ Constantinople; and Brit= ish, viâ Brindisi and Port Sa&ici= rc;d.

The British Mail generally leaves Port Saîd early in the week, but is dependent = upon the arrival of the steamer bringing the mail from India, of which due notice is= given. All the other mails have fixed days of departure. At = Cairo the mails close from 7 to 12 hours earlier, and are delivered from 7 to 12 hours later than at Alexandria= .

Mail notices of arrivals and departures a= re sent round to all the hotels.

INLAND MAILS. - Letters are sent daily by= rail to all stations as far south as Shellâl. Thence they are conveyed to Wâdi Halfa for the Sudan twice a week. The rate for inland letters is 5 millièmes per 90 gram= mes; in towns 3 millièmes.

FOREIGN POSTAGE RATES. - Egypt being incl= uded in the Postal Union, the rates of postage between it and all other countries included in the Union, except Great Britain, are 10 millièmes per 15 grammes for letters, 2 millièmes per 50 grammes for newspapers, and 4 millièmes for post-cards; to Great Britain 6 mill, per 16 grammes. Insured letters can now be sent between the United Kingdom and Egypt.

PARCEL POST. - An inland parcel poet expr= ess delivery has been

[12] PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. =

established and extended to such foreign countries as admit of this service. The maximum insurance on parcels for th= e United Kingdom and some of the British possessions has boon raised to 120l. Value payable parcels (cash to the postman on delivery) can = be exchanged between Egypt and every country in the world except Great Britain (!), Russia, Spain and Turkey.= It is proposed to make an arrangement by which this curious anomaly as regards Great Britain will be abolished.

Telegraphs. - There are two telegraph s= ystems in Egypt, one belonging to the Eastern Telegraph Company, who have offices = at Alexandria, Port Saîd, Suez, Port Tewfik and Cairo, with sub-offices during the Cairo season at Shepheard's and Gozîra Palace Hotels, and = the other to the Egyptian Government. Only the latter can be used for messages circulating within E= gypt. It is in operation throughout the whole Egyptian territory, reaching to Khartûm and further southwards and to El Arish at the North-east. Messages can be sent at the chief stations in English, French, or Italian, = but at most of the smaller ones Arabic must be used. Tariff, P.T.2 for the first eight words, for every two additional words 6 millièmes. Surtax to t= he Sudan P.T.3 per word.

By the Eastern Telegraph Company's system messages can be sent all over the world. Tariff from = Cairo, Suez, a= nd Port Saîd:

To Great = Britain and Ireland      48 millièmes per word.

To France             =             &nb= sp;      48 millièmes per word.

To Germany             =             &nb= sp;   48 millièmes per word.

To Greece             =             &nb= sp;      48 millièmes per word.

To Italy             =             &nb= sp;          48 millièmes per word.

To Malta             =             &nb= sp;        48 millièmes per word.

To Turkey= in Europe             &= nbsp;   48 millièmes per word.

To Turkey= in Asia =             &nb= sp;       67 millièmes per word.

To North America        96 to 121 millièmes p= er word.

To India             =           92 to 96 millièmes per word.

To South Africa         &= nbsp; 168 to 193 millièmes per word.

To Australasia 166 to 188 millièmes per wor= d.

The tariff from Alexandria is 10 millièmes cheap= er.

It is possible to send cheaper telegrams = to Europe by the Egyptian and Turkish lines viâ El Arish, but this is not recommended. In places where there is no Eastern Telegraph office, telegrams for other countries may be handed to the Egyptian telegraph offices, but sh= ould be marked "viâ Eastern," in which case they are transmitted to the offices of the Eas= tern Company at Alexandria or Suez, which then forwards them. =

Telephones. - The Telephone Company of = Egypt is in operation in Alexandria, Cairo, Helwân, Matarîya, Asy&u= circ;t, Zagâzig, Mansûra, and Port Saîd. The Government Telephone between Cairo and Alexandria is worked, as far as ordinary messages are concerned, by the Telephone Comp= any, between the two Bourses by the Government Telegraphs.

12. Hotels. Apartments. Servants. Dragomans.

Hotels.= - Good hotels are to be fou= nd at Port Saîd, Alexandria, Cairo, Helwân, Gîza Pyramids, = Luxor, and Asw&ac= irc;n. The pension system is adopted at all of them, and so much a day charged for lodging, attendance, and board. This charge varies from P.T.50-90, and incl= udes

PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. [13] =

two or three meals in the day; wine extra. Sitting-rooms can be had at the best hotels at from P.T.50-100 a day. No difference is made in the charge whether the meals are eaten in the house or not, but a lunch-basket is provided for day-expeditions. If along stay is intended, arrangements at a lower rate should be made in advance. At Tanta, Mansûra, Zagâzig, Asyût, an= d moat of the large towns in Upper Egypt, there= are Greek locandas where food and a bed can be obtained; but =

they cannot be recommended.

In all parts of Egypt where there are no hote= ls or inns, the traveller, if without a dahabîya or tents, must trust to the hospitality of the principal natives or of European officials or merchants.= In small villages it is customary for the omdeh or headman to provide hospitality to travellers, but naturally very little = is to be expected, and a present is obligatory.

Apartments. - These can be procured bot= h at Alexandria and Cairo, but the difficulties and discomforts connected with them are so great that = they cannot be recommended.

Servants, a necessary evil anywhere, = are especially so in the East. The traveller may indeed, if he only intends visiting Alexandria and Cairo, and the line of the Suez Canal, do witho= ut them, or at any rate he need only hire an occasional guide at from P.T.80-4= 0 a day, according to the service rendered. But if he intends to travel about by himself, he must provide himself with one or more domestics; and should he = know nothing of the country or the language, a dragoman (targumân, "interpreter") will be indispensable.= The dragoman will take all trouble off his hands, and for a fixed sum defray all the expenses of travelling, food, lodging, servants, &c.

Dragomans. - There are Dragomans (the = plural form "dragomen," habitually used by Englishmen, is incorrect) of every sort and kind, good, bad, and indifferent; but it is seldom that the really good ones, who confessedly are at the head of their profession, fail= to give satisfaction. Their charges, however, arc very extravagant; and travel= lers who are not so particular as to comfort and luxuries may find a very fair dragoman who will do everything at a lower rate. One thing, however, the traveller must not expect, and that is, to obtain from them accurate information of any kind. The Nile dragomans, as a rule, know absolutely not= hing about the various objects of interest in Egypt, to which they go year = after year; and though always roady with an answer if asked any question about the country and the people, the probability is that the answer is as inaccurate= as it is prompt. The dragoman is in fact a courrier and maître d'hôtel = in one, but he has none of the kind of information possessed by the commonest = laquais de place in a continental = town. The expense of a dragoman varies with the nature of the journey and the thi= ngs required. Further information with = regard to dragomans will be found on p. 287.

For hiring a servant for travelling in the country, a decent lad can generally be obtained at any railway station. The Stationmaster or Postmaster should be asked to recommend one. Three to 5 piastres a day, without food, will he ample wages, and a deposit of a dollar could be made with the Stationmaster to give confidence. In Cairo, Asyût, and Luxor, the American Mission can often recommend a superior boy with some education= as a servant.

[14] PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. =

13. Climate.

General Sanita= ry State. - The climate of Egypt is remarkably dry and salubrious, and although the mortality amongst the inhabitants is great, it can easily be accounted for apart from the climate. Through the ignorance, superstition, and filthiness of the natives, there i= s an excessive infant mortality, and the death-rate amongst the young and adult Egyptians is greatly increased by the privations, hard work, and exposure t= hey have to endure. Besides this, a great number of the poor die for wont of me= dical care and advice, which the Government does not supply them with, unless in = the hospitals, of which the natives have a deep-seated dread. They prefer to di= e at their homes, surrounded by their friends, rather than enter a hospital. Muc= h, however, is being done to remedy this state of things, especially since the English occupation of Egypt; and the sanitary service, which is under an English doctor, is greatly improved.

Except in the Delta and sea-coast towns, = the country is quite exempt from low fevers and diseases of the chest. Ophthalm= ia, diarrhoea, dysentery, and affections of the liver are the principal endemic complaints. Only two or three months of the year, from June to September, c= an be called unhealthy.

Plague has occurred of late years in Egypt, = but is not endemic; typhus and relapsing fevers are present every spring among the overcrowded denizens of mud hovels. Cholera overran the country in an epide= mic form in 1865 and again in 1883, and was then absent in spite of all efforts= to find it until September 1895. Between September and December it smouldered quietly in the neighbourhood of Damietta a= nd Lake Menzâla, and then appeared in Alexandri= a, where it lasted till July, in spite of the energetic efforts of the Municipality to stamp it out. There was no sign of it in Cairo until May 1896. The Egyptian Government, under advice from its English advisers, rose to the occasion, a= nd liberally voted men and money for the most pressing sanitary needs.

Dengue fever was present in Egypt i= n 1880 and 1887, but only from August to November, it being always an autumnal disease.

Smallpox is by no means uncommon in the c= ountry districts, and therefore It behoves visitors to protect themselves by recent revaccination. Measles sometimes occurs as an epidemic among native childre= n, and is also sometimes imported by English visitors. Diphtheria is not uncom= mon among natives, but ought not to occur among any visitors living in sanitary houses. Influenza has been present every winter =3Dsince 1890, but the dise= ase in Egypt is never dangerous, and seldom serious. Typhoid fever is often imported by visitors from France a= nd Italy, and is sometimes contracted in Egypt i= tself, though this disease is almost unknown among Egyptians.

Temperature. - The Egyptian climate is m= ore uniform than that of any other place on the globe. Still it varies consider= ably through the different parts of the country. The whole of Middle and Upper Egypt is characterised by great dryness and clearness of the atmosphere, while the Delta enjoys a much cooler and damper climate. Certain localities are having their climates noticeably modified by now and extensive irrigation, by the cultivation of large tracts of previou= sly sterile land, and by the growth of trees. The immense surface of water now = exposed

PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. [15] =

by the Suez Canal to the influence of a tropical sun must produce local disturbances of the atmosphere, while the northerly winds, that blow for about eight months in the year, as they pass over the Canal district, will carry along with them a considerable amount of moisture, which, combined with that arising from the annual overflow of the Nile, would load us to expect still milder summers but damper winters in Mi= ddle and Lower Egypt.

From the peculiar dryness of the atmosphe= re Egypt is rendered susceptible of sudden changes of temperature; but the fac= t of its dryness prevents the injurious effect that usually result from such sud= den changes. The thermometer often indicates a variation of 20° F. between = morning and midday, and as much between midday and evening. The early morning is invariably cool, but after two or three hours the sun's warmth is speedily communicated to the atmosphere, which continues warm till near sunset, when= it rapidly cools; and if there be any moisture in the air, it now appears as d= ew which has fallen on the ground, half an hour after sunset. In Upper Egypt d= ew is rare; in some extremely dry spots, such as Western Thebes, it is never known to occur. Although the thermometer f= alls suddenly about sunset, it soon rises again from the radiation of the heat absorbed by the earth during the day. Towards morning it falls again, to ri= se with the return of the sun.

The mean annual temperature at Cairo is about 71° F. The thermomet= er seldom falls to 40° F. at Cairo (37&de= g; F. on the desert near Cairo is the lowest Egy= ptian temperature ever recorded), but it is frequently lower on the Nile. The coldest months in the year are December and January, and the hottest are June, July, and August, but even then it is cool in the shade and at nights. The humidity of the atmosphere is principally controlled by the rise and fa= ll of the Nile. Fogs prevail during the fir= st two months of the receding of the waters. Evening fogs descent very quickly as = the sun goes down, and are as quickly deposited after the sun has set, leaving = the sky clear and the air as fresh as after a good shower. Morning fogs are soon dispelled by the heat of the sun, and then follows the clear beautiful day.=

On the desert the air is always dry and bracing, and much cooler than that over cultivated land. During winter the nights seem piercingly cold on the desert owing to the contrast with the he= at of the day. The moonlight nights are singularly brilliant, and when there i= s no moon the starlit sky is as light as any moonlight night in Europe. The starry heavens are nowhere seen to such advantage as in Egypt. Photographs can easily be taken by moonlight (see p. [6]).

The Seasons. - In Egypt there may be said to be= only two seasons in the year - Summer and Winter.

The SUMMER extends from April to the end = of September. It is ushered in by strong equinoctial winds, which arc at first cool; but they soon give place to the hot south wind, or khamsîn, so called from blowing at intervals during a per= iod of 50 days. This wind is very peculiar, and may be thus described. It is preceded by an unusual stillness of the atmosphere, and, as it approaches, = the air assumes a dusky yellow hue from being laden with impalpable dust, throu= gh which the sun shines obscurely, and gradually becomes quite concealed. Elec= tric influences accompany this wind, so that, notwithstanding the excessive heat, one feels excited rather than depressed by it. The

[16] PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. =

respiration is quickened, and the skin be= comes quite dry and shrunk, and sometimes a prickly sensation is felt all over the body. This wind blows generally for three days in succession, with interval= s of four or five days. It sometimes lasts from ten to twelve days continuously,= and if blowing from the south-east is not only very destructive to vegetation, = but exhausting to the animal organism. The khamâsîn (plural form of= khamsîn) are not so severe as formerly, and they always cease about the middle of May; northerly winds th= en set in and blow almost continuously till November, when for two or three we= eks easterly winds prevail. A north wind blowing constantly during the summer months modifies the heat considerably.

After the harvest in June, the country be= comes an arid-looking waste; everything appears burned up, and the ground is dry = and cracked m every direction. During May and June the Nile remains at its lowe= st, but by the end of June it begins to rise in Cairo, and continues to increase till t= he middle of September. Before it has reached its height all the canals are filled, and the water is admitted into the fields. Such a surface of water materially alters the temperature, and light dews now occur about sunset, a= ll through the lower country. As the river falls, leaving the land wet and exp= osed to the action of the sun, exhalations arise, which render the Delta somewhat unhealthy, the prevailing diseases then being ophthalmia, dysentery, diarrh= oea, and ague. By the middle of November the river has retired within its banks;= and then the atmosphere is remarkably free from humidity. The average summer temperature is about 85° F., the mornings and nights throughout the who= le summer being always pleasantly cool.

The WINTER begins in October and ends in = March. It is so genial and uniform as to prove a great attraction to invalids, who find here a winter climate unsurpassed by that of any other country in the world. "Boat life on the Nile is th= e most enjoyable of all restoratives for the sick; and for lovers of all that is luxurious in travel, of all that is glorious in memory, of the grand, the beautiful, the picturesque, and the strange, Egyptian travel is the perfect= ion of life." From the middle of November till March the wind blows from t= he N. The atmosphere continues to be comparatively dry till the middle of November, when there is an appreciable amount of humidity arising from the = land left wet by the Nile. The dews at night = and in the morning are now sometimes quite heavy in Lower E= gypt, and fogs are usual below Asyût, but they are of short duration, and by the end of December they more or less disappear, and the air regains its fo= rmer dryness, though there are occasional showers.

RAIN (nattar) seldom falls in Upper Egypt; but on the = Delta and along the Mediterranean coast it is not at all uncommon at this season. About Alexandria there would be on an average eight inches during the winter. At Cairo rain falls = on about fifteen days during the winter, but the whole rainfall is very little more = than one inch. When showers do come they are liable to be almost tropical for a = few hours, and, owing to the absence of all drainage, the streets are then rend= ered impassable. Snow is unknown: but in Upper Egypt and the Delta hail and thunder storms sometimes occur with great violence, = and do much injury, the hailstones being frequently as large as a pigeon's egg.=

The mean winter temperature at Cairo is about 58° F. The season en= ds with boisterous southerly winds and dust storms, which begin to =

PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. [17] =

blow about the latter part of March, and continue for one, two, or three days at a time till the proper khamsîn sets in.

Cairo is dangerous to unhealthy p= eople from November until February, owing to fever.

Invalids should especially avoid being in= and about towns in Egypt= , owing to the amount of foul dust. The day should be spent out in the desert= or in the fields. They cannot be too careful to avoid a chill at sunset. The f= all of the temperature, owing to the clearness of the air, is far greater than = in Europe, and there is nothing more unwise than stand= ing about at sunset, or going out without sufficient clothing after dark. Every= one docs wisely to carry a light wrap to be put on at sundown.

Diseases benef= ited by the Climate. - The following remarks are from Dr. Sandwith's 'Egypt as a Winter Resort': - "The climate of Egypt is suitable during the winter months for a great variety of chronic ailments, among which may be mentioned - convalescence f= rom pneumonia, fevers, and all acute diseases; that common delicacy of English = and American youth which may be called 'threatened phthisis,' all cases of early phthisis, and all quiescent cas= es of the late forms of the disease; chronic bronchitis and emphysema; bronchial, catarrhal, and spasmodic asthma; chronic catarrhal affections of the larynx= and pharynx, including 'clergyman's sore throat'; rheumatism, rheumatoid arthri= tis, and gout in its various forms; heart disease, and all other complaints which prevent a patient from walking or other active exercise; anaemia and chloro= sis; exhaustion of nervous system from too great excitement, worry, business or study, and sleeplessness or hypochondria; neuralgia, hysteria, and its accompanying dyspepsia; diseases of spinal cord, locomotor ataxy, &c.; chronic kidney disease; and the very large class of people without organic diseases, who shrivel up sadly in a cold climate, and expand joyously in a sunny atmosphere where they are not perpetually reminded of their sensitive= ness to cold and to 'taking cold.' This lust group includes those invalided home from India for malaria and other causes."

Clothings and = Mode of Life. - Inv= alids coming to Egypt for the winter should be well provided with warm clothing, and should always wear wool next the skin. A cholera belt is advisable. Two tweed suits, one of lighter texture than the other, form the best outfit for the ordinary traveller; and on the N= ile voyage flannel shirts will be found the best both for health and convenienc= e of washing. The head should be well protected: for this purpose the best headd= ress is a common felt helmet or wide-awake. Some prefer a pith helmet. The red tarbûsh or fez with which travellers so often delight to adorn themse= lves affords little or no protection to those unaccustomed to an Egyptian sun; a= nd as it is the mark of a Government official, or a servant, it is only a ridiculous affectation to wear it. Brown boots and shoes are preferable to black ones, and for the Nile trip these = should be strong. The ground all round the ruins is rough and covered with loose stones, so that boots are preferable to shoes. Coloured-glass spectacles wi= th gauze sides afford great relief to the eye from the glare of the sun, and a blue or grey veil is often useful for the same purpose. <= /p>

The victor must be prepared for both hot = and cold weather, and must dress accordingly. A warm great coat, fur cloak, and rugs are absolutely

c

[18] PRELIMINARY INFORMATION. =

essential. Ordinary English spring or sum= mer clothing should be worn in Cai= ro, with the exception of top-hat and frock-coat, which are only necessary in c= ase of presentation to the Khedive. The usual headgear is a straw hat. Nothing = is more ridiculous than to see English tourists in Cairo, in fashionable January under a c= louded sky, wearing helmets, goggles to keep away imaginary dust, and muslin puggarees which are practically us= eless under all circumstances. A white umbrella is useful for the Nile trip, but this, like shady hats and most other things, can now be bought in Cairo, = Luxor, or Aswân.

The Nile water is soft and extremely palatable, but it must always be drawn from the middl= e of the river, and must then be filtered through native ziehs before being drunk. The Egyptians who prefer muddy water = to filtered suffer from various disorders in consequence of their inveterate i= gnorance and prejudice on this point.

Care should be taken never to sleep or to= sit in a draught, and invalids should avoid all bedrooms on the ground-floor if there is the slightest risk of malaria from mosquitoes which may come from = the garden or from cesspool emanations. Mosquito-nets over the beds should be insisted on.

Intending visitors before choosing should= find out whether any given hotel is built on the most modern sanitary principles, and also whether the drinking-water is sterilised by means of the Pastour-Chamberland or Berkefeld filters.

The most picturesque parts of Cairo are, unfortunately, also the most insanitary.

Treatment of S= light Ailments. -= There are many good European doctors and chemists in Alexan= dria, Cairo, and Port Sa&i= circ;d, and every tourist steamer up the Nile al= so carries a European physician and a medicine chest. It is, therefore, not necessary for steamboat travellers to carry any drugs with them, but a few words of advice may be useful to those who intend to travel in a dahab&icir= c;ya. Sunstroke, even in a mild form, is rare, but can be treated by an aperient = and applying cold water to the head, followed later by quinine.

Simple diarrhoea is very common, and is generally due to chill when the individual is fatigued. It is best treated = by castor oil, seidlitz powder, rhubarb pill or other mild aperient, liquid di= et, and later on astringent medicines such as Dover's powder, chlorodyne or bismuth. Diarrhoea when severe or choleraic is well checked by corrosive sublimate, dose 1/30th of a grain, best carried in a standard solution made= up. For all tendency to diarrhoea rice-jelly should be taken, well boiled for t= wo hours to break up the grains.

True dysentery is very rare, but a little dysenteric diarrhoea is not uncommon, and can be best treated as already st= ated for diarrhoea. Liquid diet and brandy must be continued as long as the symp= toms exist; and simple food, such as eggs, milk puddings, bread, toast and biscu= its, should be ventured on before the patient attempts chicken, meat, or vegetab= les.

Purulent ophthalmia used to be very common among Europeans in Egypt, but it is now extremely rare, except in the case = of neglected children; mild catarrhal ophthalmia is still often seen, especial= ly among those who have not learnt the importance of specially washing their e= yes after exposure to any dust. One good rule is to wash the eyes regularly in = Egypt w= ith a saturated solution of boracic acid in tepid

GEOGRPHY. [19]

water. If, in spite of all precautions, t= he eyes become red and painful, with a slight sticky discharge, it will be goo= d to drop a few drops into them of such an eye lotion as two grains of sulphate = of zinc in one ounce of water. If ophthalmia will not yield to zinc alone, use= a saturated solution of quinine mixed with zinc. A slight purgative and simple diet are also necessary. A shade will be better than a bandage to keep off = the light when the eyes are inflamed.

II. GEOGRAPHY.=

1. Ancient Egypt

In the ancient Egyptian language, as well= as in Coptic, Eg= ypt in called Kamit, or the land of Kam, the "Ham" of the Bi= ble, meaning "the block land" a name derived from the blackness of the soil. By the Hebrews it was called = Mizraim, a name still preserved in the modern Arabic appellation Misr. Its Greek name was !&C= cedil;(LBJ@H from which the modern Europ= ean name is derived: signification doubtful.

From the old inscriptions we learn that t= he country was divided into two large districts, styled the "land of the North" and the "land of the South," or the Upper country and= the Lower country. The land of the North extended from the neighbourhood of Mem= phis to the sea, and corresponded with what was afterwards termed by the Greeks, from its resemblance to the fourth letter of their alphabet, ), the Delta, the name by whi= ch it is known to us; the Arabs style it Behêra. The land of the South included the remainder of the country as far as the island of Elephanti= ne, opposite Syene (the modern Aswân); this the Arabs call es-Saîd. From those two Arabic names the usual designations of the Upper and Lower Egyptian dialects of the Coptic language, Boheiric and Sahidic, are derived.<= /o:p>

These two large divisions worn further subdivided into districts (hsapu), called by the Greeks Nomos (;<= /span>`:@4). The number of those nomes= seems to have varied. The old Egyptian lists generally give 44; Pliny the same number; Strabo and Diodoros 36; the usually received number is 42. Of these= , 90 were in the Lower country, or Delta, and 22 in the Upper country. Each nome= had its own capital, the residence of the hereditary governor. "The capital formed likewise the central point of the particular divine worship of the district which belonged to it. The sacred lists of the nomes have handed do= wn to us the names of the temple of the chief deity, of the priests and priest= esses, of the holy trees, and also the names of the town-harbour, of the holy cana= l, the cultivated land, and the land which was only fruitful during the inundation, and much more information, in such completeness, that we are in= a position, from the indications contained in these lists, to form the most e= xact picture of each Egyptian nome in all its details, almost without any gaps." - Brugsch, 'Egypt u= nder the Pharaohs.'

The following is a list of the nomes, with their Egyptian names and the names of their capital towns, both in Egyptian= and Greek, and the divinity to whom they were dedicated: -

c 2

[20] GEOGRAPHY.

T= HE SOUTH COUNTRY, OR UPPER EGYPT.

NOMES.

CAPITALS.

DEITY.

Egyptian

Classical and Modern.=

I. Ta-kens<= /span>

Abu<= /p>

Elephantiné

Khnemu (Chnoumis).

II. Utes-her

Dbu<= /p>

Apollinopolis Magna (Edfû)

Heru-behutet.

III. Ten

Nekheb

Eileithyiaspolis (el-K= ab)

Nekhebet (Smithis).

IV. Uaset

Uaset und Annu Kemat<= /span>

<= span lang=3DEN-GB style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB'>Thebes, Hermont= his (Luxor and Ermen= t)

Amen-Ra (Amonrasonter = and Mentu)

V. HERUI ("Two Hawks")

Kebt=

Koptos (Kuft)

Min.=

VI. Aati

Ta-en-tarert

Tentyris (Dendera)

Het-Heru (Hathor).

VII. Seseshet ("Sistrum")

Het-seseshet

Diopolis Parva (Hou)

Hathor.

VIII. Aht

Teni=

Thinis (el-Birba)=

An-her (Onouris).=

IX. Ma-min (?)

Apu<= /p>

Panopolis (Akhmî= m)

Min.=

X. Uatjet

Tebt=

Aphroditopolis (Itfu)<= o:p>

Hathor.

XI. Set

Shas-hetep<= /span>

Hypselis (Shotb)<= /o:p>

Khnemu.

XII. Du-heft ("Serpent Mountain")

Nut-ent-bak=

Hierakonpolis

Heru (Horus).

XIII. Amef-khent<= /o:p>

Saut=

Lykopolis (Asyût= )

Uapuaut.

XIV. Amef-peh

Kesi=

Kusae (el-Kusîya= )

Hathor.

XV. Uenet ("Hare&= quot;)

Khmenuu

Hermopolis Magna (Eshmunên)

Tehuti (Thoth).

XVI. Mahetj ("Oryx")

Hebnu

....=

Horus.

XVII. Anpu ("Jackal")

Ka-sa

Kynonpolis (el-Kê= ;s)

Anpu (Anubis).

XVIII. Sepet

Het-bennu

Hipponon (el-Hiba)

Anubis.

XIX. Bu-tjamui ("= Land of Two Sceptres")

Pa-matja

Oxyrrhynchus (Behnes&a= circ;)

Set.=

XX. Am-khent

Henensuten<= /span>

Herakleopolis Magna (Ahnasya)

Her-Shefi (Harsaphes).

XXI. Am-peh=

Smen-Her

Nilopolis (?)

Khnemu.

XXII. Maten ("Knife")

Tep-ahet

Aphroditopolis (Atf&ic= irc;h)

Hathor.

GEOGRAPHY. [21]

T= HE NORTH COUNTRY, OR LOWER EGYPT.

NOMES.

CAPITALS.

DEITY.

Egyptian

Classical and Modern.=

I. Aneb-Hetj ("Wh= ite Wall")

Men-nefert<= /span>

<= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Memphis (Mitrahîna)

Ptah.

II. Aa

Sokhem

Letopolis

Horus.

III. Ament ("West")

Amu (?)

....=

Hathor.

IV. Sepi-res

Tjeka

Prosopis

Sebek.

V. Sepi-meht

Sait=

Saïs (Sâ)

Nit (Neïth).=

VI. Ka-set<= /span>

Khasuut

Xoïs (Sakhâ= )

Amen-Ra.

VII. Nefer-ament<= /o:p>

Sent-nefert=

Metelis

Amon-Ra.

VIII. Nefer-abt

Patumu

Patumos, Pithom (Tell el-Maskhuta)

Atumu.

IX. Ati ("Prince&= quot;)

Pa-Asar

Busiris (Abusîr)=

Asari (Osiris).

X. Ka-kam ("Black Bull")

Het-ta-her-abt

Athribis (Atrîb)=

Heru-Khent-Kheti.=

XI. Ka-Heseb

Pa-maka

(Kabasos) (Shabbâ= ;s)

Set.=

XII. Teb-ah=

Theb-netert=

Sebennytos (Samanud)

An-her.

XIII. Hek-at

Annu=

Heliopois (Matarî= ;ya)

Ra-Atumu

XIV. Khent-Abt

Tjaant

<= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tanis (Sâ= ;n)

Horus.

XV. Tehuti ("Ibis")

Pa-Tohuti

Hermopolis Minor =

Thoth.

XVI. Khar

Pa-ba-nob-tatui

Mendes (Tmei el-Amd&ic= irc;d)

Osiris Ba-nob-Tatni.

XVII. Sam-behu-tet

Pa-khon-en-Amen

Diospolis

Amen-Ra.

XVIII. Am-khent

Pa-Ubastet<= /span>

<= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Bubastis (Tell Ba= sta)

Ubastet or Bast (Bubastis).=

XIX. Am-Peh=

Pa-uatjet

Buto (Tell Fara'in)

Uatjet (Buto).

XX. Sopt

Kesem

Phakussa (Fakûs)=

Sopt.

[22] GEOGRAPHY.

$$$ It may be remarked that at a later pe= riod there were three divisions: portions of Upper and Lower Egypt being taken to form a Middle Egypt, called by the Greeks, from its containing 7 nomes, Heptanomis. Upper Egypt, or the Thebaïd, then reached to the Theba&ium= l;ca Phylace (N<= /span>L8V60), now Dêrût esh= -Sherif; Heptanomis thence to the apex of the Delta; and the rest was comprehended i= n Lower Egypt. In the time of the later Roman emperor= s, the Delta, or Lower Egypt, was divided into 4 provinces or districts - Augustam= nica Prima and Secunda, and AEgyptus Prima and Secunda - being still subdivided = into the same nomes: and in the time of Arcadius, the son of Theodosius the Grea= t, Heptanomis received the name of Arcadia. The Thebaïd, too, was made un= to two parts, under the name of Upper and Lower, the line of separation passing between Panopolis and Ptolemaïs Hermii. The nomes also increased in number, and amounted to 57, of which the Delta contained 34, nearly equal to those of all Egypt in the time of the Pharaohs. In Byzantine times the chief provinces were governed by Dukes ()<= /span>@b>, from Latin dux), as representatives of the Emperor, assisted by Counts and Topoterites or Lieutenants.

Although many of the old Egyptian kings extended their dominions from time to time beyond the southern border of Elephantinê, as is proved by the various temples above the First Cataract, and one dynasty, the XXVth, was actually composed of Ethiopian kings, who conquered the whole of Upper Egypt, and reigned from Thebes to Napata, or Gebel Barkal, there is no record of any geographical division of this more southern country. Under the Ptolemies, the more northern portion of what is now called Nubia had the name of Dodekaschoinos or "12 schoenes," and is usually suppo= sed to have comprehended the district from Syene to Hierasykaminos, now Maharra= ka, though Prof. Sethe, of Göttingen, is of opinion that the name means the district between Syene and Philae only. =

2. Modern Egypt.<= o:p>

If in the term Egypt we include all the countries over which the Khedive claimed supremacy prior= to the events of 1882-86 in the Sudan, it is rather difficult to determine its boundaries, with the exception of t= he northern, which is of course the Mediterranean. On the south its furthest limit nearly reached the Equator, though it narro= wed there almost to a point. Within its eastern borders, which commenced on the Mediterranean at el-Arîsh, were included the Peninsula of Sinai, the = Gulf of Akaba, and a narrow strip of the east coast of the Red Sea, as far as opposite Râs Benas, from which point the boundary-line continued down the west coast of that se= a to Massâwa, and on into the Gulf of Aden to Berbera, though the Khedive's authority in this extreme southern portion did not extend far from the coas= t; inland, Abyssinia and some native tribes were independent. On the west, it = was bounded by an imaginary line from Râs el-Kunaîs on the coast, through the Libyan Desert to Dârfûr, and thence trending in a westerly direction to the Blue Mountains= . The Mahdist rebellion of 1883 confined the Egyptian dominion to the Nile valleys north of Wâdi Halfa; but the Anglo-Egyptian military operations of 18= 97 9 have resulted in the re-conquest of the whole of the former dominion of Egy= pt, with the exception of the Red Sea littoral south of Suâkin, which is = now divided between Italy (Massâwa, Eritrea), France

GEOGRAPHY. [23]

(Obock and Djibouti), and England (Zeila = and Berbera), and the southern portion of the old Equatorial Province, which is= now hold by England from Uganda, a portion (the Ladò enclave) being temporarily handed over to Belgian-Congolese administration. The whole of t= he re-conquered territory is now under the joint control of England and Egypt, from a point north of Wâdi Halfa to the frontiers of the French Congo, the Free Stste, Uganda, Abyssinia, and Eritrea; Wâdi Halfa has thus been transferred from Egypt proper to the Sudan<= /st1:place>. The British and Egyptian flags fly side by side in the Sudan, = except at Suâkin; the local governors (Mûdirs) are British officers. Khartûm is, as before, the capital.

Egypt Proper comprises the Delta, togeth= er with the Peninsula of Sinai and the Oases of the Libyan Desert, the Nile as far as the Second Cataract,= and Nubia as far as Wâdi Halfa. As of old, it is divided into two parts, Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt, and each of these is subdivided into Provinces, with their chief towns, as under.

LOWER EGYPT.

Province.         Chief Town.

Behéra             Damanhûr.

Menûfîya          Shibî= ;u el-Kôm.

Sharkîya.          Zag&aci= rc;zig.

Dakâliya.          Mans&uc= irc;ra.

Gharbiya.=          Tanta.=

Kallûbiya.         Bonha.

Gîza.            &= nbsp;   Gîza.

Cairo, Alex= andria, Suez, Port Saî= d, el-Arîsh, and Damietta form separate Governorates (Mohafza= n).<= /span>

UPPER EGYPT.

Province.         Chief Town.

Beni-Suêf.        Beni-Suêf.<= /span>

Fayyûm.           Med= înet el-Fayyûm.

Minia.&nb= sp;            = Minia.

Asyût.             = ; Asyût.

Girga.&nb= sp;            = Sûhâg.

Kena.&nbs= p;            &= nbsp; Kena.

Aswân. Aswân.

Each of these provinces has a governor ca= lled a Mudîr; and they are subdi= vided again into districts, each under a = Mamur, or deputy-governor. The Sudan is divided into the provinces of Dongola, Berber, Khartûm, Kordofân, Bahr el-Ghazal, Upper Nile, Sennaar and Kassala, and the districts (second-class provinces) of Suâkin, = White Nile, Mongalla, and Wâdi Halfa.

The total area of the cultivated and inha= bited territory under direct Egyptian rule is estimated at 34,000 square kilometr= es. More than half of the cultivable land is in the Delta, which is 160 miles b= road at its Mediterranean base, but narrows to about 10 miles at its head below = Cairo. From this = point to Aswân the alluvial soil, called by the Arabs er-Rîf, nowhere extends to a greater width, and is indeed generally much narrower, except at the quasi-oasis of the Fayyûm, on = the left bank of the river, which measures about 30 miles from N. to S., and 40 from E. to W. T= he total length from the sea to the southern frontier is, in a straight line, about 700 miles.

The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan measures 1,200 m= iles from N. to S., and about 1,000 from E. to W., drawing a line from Suâ= kin to Darfur. Its area is about 1,006,000 s= quare miles.

Of geographical features Egypt may be sai= d to possess but one, its river; for the hills which border the Nile's course on either side from Cairo to Wâdi Halfa, branching out on the E. from Ke= na to Kusêr, and on the W. from Wâdi Halfa to the Great Oasis, nev= er reach any great

[24] GEOGRAPHY.

height; and the lakes, with the exception= of the Bitter Lakes, which must be considered as artificial, and the Birket el-Kurûn, in the Fayyûm, are nothing= but lagoons, of which the most considerable are Mareotis, Edku, Bourlos and Menzâla.

At the same time no geographical notice o= f Egypt, however slight, would be complete without a mention of the Oases. These are five in number, and are situated in the Libyan Desert several days' journey W. of the Nile. The most northern is Sîwa, the famed oasis of Jupiter Ammon: next com= es the Little Oasis, the Oasis Parva of antiquity, now called Wâh el-Bahrîya; then the oases of Farâfra and Dakhla; and further to the S., the Great Oasis, the Oasis Major of the Romans, now called the Wâh el-Kharga. There are, besides, one or two smaller ones. The title given by the ancients to these oases, of "islands of the blest" (= :"6VD4T< <F@4), is somewhat misleading, a= s they do not spring up from the surrounding desolation, but are depressions in the lofty desert table-land, which rises above them in steep limestone cliffs. = Nor is the whole of their area cultivable soil, all being intersected by passes= of desert. They owe their existence and their fertility to the copiousness of = the springs with which they abound.

The following are some of the common Arab= ic appellations of towns, &c.: - M= edîna is a "capital," and is applied to Cairo, and the capital of the Fayy&ucir= c;m. Markaz is an administrative divisi= on of a Province, and often means the office of the local administration. Beled is the usual appellation of a "village"; whence Ibn el-= beled, "son of a village,'' or "countryman." Nahia corresponds to a French ''commune"; it may contain t= wo or three villages. Kafr is a vi= llage independent of the Nahia; Nezla, a village founded by the pe= ople of another place, as Nezlet el-Fent= . Minia (corrupted into Mit, particularly in the Delta) is= also applied to villages colonised from other places. Beni, "the sons,= " or Awlad, "the boys,"= is given to those founded by a tribe or family, as Beni Amrân, "the sons of Amrân," or Awlad 'Amr, "the boys of 'Amr," and then many villages in the district are often included under= the same name. Zawiya is a hamlet h= aving a mosque. Kasr is a "palace," or any large building. Bûrg is a ''tower" (like the Greek Ab<= /span>D(@H); and it is even applied to= the pigeon-houses built in that form. S= âhil is a level spot, or opening in the bank, where the river is accessible from= the plain. Mersa is an anchoring-pl= ace, or harbour. Dêr is a "convent," and frequently points out a Christian village. Kâm is a "mound," and indicates the site= of an ancient town, and Tell is co= mmonly used in the Delta in the same sense. Kharâb and Kuffri are applied to "ruins." Birba (which= is taken from the (Coptic) signifies a "temple." Wâdi is "a valley"; Gebel, "a mountain"; and Birka, "a lake," or "a reach" in the Nile. The W. bank of the river is called ghârbi and the E. bank shergi; and the common expressions= for N. and S. are bâhri and kubli.

3. The Nile.

The Nile is emphatically the river of th= e Old World. The Amazon of the New World alone surpasses it in length, so far as that length is as yet known; but no river, in either hemisphere, can in any decree equal it in historical and geographical interest. By the ancient Egyptians it was honou= red as a divinity to whom their land was indebted for its very existence, Egypt being most truly, as Herodotus

GEOGRAPHY. [25]

puts it, "the gift of the Nile." Its connection with the most important = events of ancient history, and the stupendous monuments which still bear witness to its former wealth and civilisation, render it an object of the greatest interest to the archaeologist and the student of history; while the discove= ry of its source has been a problem which down to the present day has never ce= ased to excite the curiosity and stimulate the seal of geographers and traveller= s. The words of Tibullus:

"Nile pater, quânam to possum dicere causâ,

Ant quibus in terries, occul= ulase caput?"

have not received a complete answer even = now, though the proverb "caput Nili quaerere" does not quite convey the idea of the hopeless enterprise that it once did.

The true Source of the Nile must be consi= dered to be the lake Victoria Nyanza, the most important tributary of which is the Kagera. From the Victoria Nyanza it descends north-west, joining the stream from the Albert Nyanz= a, which lies about 1,400 feet lower than the larger lake. Passing Gondókoro near 5° N . lat., it is joined near 9° N. lat. by = the waters of the Bahr el-Ghazâl (Gazelle Riveri and the Sobât: from which points to Khartûm it is known as the Bahr el'Abyad (White River) or White Nile, a name which may be derived either from the whitish day which it holds in solution, or from its contrast with the Bahr el-Asrak (Blue River) or Blue Nile, which unites wit= h it at Khartûm. The length of its course to this point of junction is abo= ut 1500 miles.

The Bahr el-Azrak or Blue Nile, so called from the dark colour of its waters, ri= ses in the mountains of Abyssinia, and is jo= ined by many important tributaries before reaching Khartûm. At its point of confluence with the White Nile it consti= tutes, under ordinary circumstances, but 1/2 of the volume of water which hencefor= th flows on under the name of the Bahr en-Nîl, but in spring and summer = this amount is considerably increased. It is then swollen with the rains that ha= ve fallen in the Abyssinian mountains, and swoops along in an overflowing turb= id stream, thick with the fertilising mud from which it derives its name, and = the deposits of which have formed and still continue to maintain the land of Eg= ypt.

From Khartûm the Nile flows in one undivided stream, and fed only by one affluent, the = Atbara, to the sea, a distance of more than 1800 miles. Nowhere is the cultivated l= and (except in the Fayyûm and the Delta) more than 10 miles broad, and in many places there is nothing but a strip of sand between it and the hills w= hich on either side flank the whole length of its course as far as Cairo. Through these hills it has occasionally to force its way in a series of falls, to w= hich the name of cataract has been given, though they bear no analogy with such cataracts as Niagara, being in fact mere= ly rapids. There are six of these cataracts, besides some smaller falls, betwe= en Khartûm and Aswân. That at Aswân is known as the First Cataract.

The Nile now enters Egypt Proper and continues, at an average rate of about 3 miles an h= our, increased to 4 1/2 at the height of the inundation, a quiet winding course varying in breadth from 350 yards at Silsilis to 1100 yards at Minia. So far its course is the same as in old times, but a considerable change now takes place; for whereas formerly it discharged itself into the sea by seven Mouths, at the present day these = are reduced to two. The point of separation, which constitutes the apex of the Delta, has remained about the same. Its ancient name

[26] GEOGRAPHY.

appears to have been Kerkasoros, the mode= rn representative of which may be placed at a point opposite Shubra. Hero the river anciently divided into three branches, the Pelusiac, running E., the Canopic, running W., and the Sebennytic which flowed between these two, continuing indeed the general northward direction hitherto taken by the Nile, and piercing the Delta through the centre. Fr= om this Sebennytic branch two others were derived, the Tanitic and the Mendesi= an, both of which emptied themselves between it and the Pelusiac branch. The lo= wer parts of the remaining two branches, the Bolbitine and the Phatmitic, were artificial, and were constructed probably when the other outlets began to d= ry up. It is by these two mouths that the river at the present day finds its outlet. At the point of bifurcation the general direction of the two stream= s is probably that of the old Pelusiac and Canopic branches, but they gradually = quit the extreme E. and W. course, and continue more in the centre of the Delta,= the one to Damietta, and the other to Rosetta, from which places they derive th= eir modern appellations.

The annual Inundations, which not only water the country, but supply it with the fertilising deposi= t on which its very existence depends, are the result of the rains falling in the mountains amongst which the Blue Nile has its source, and in Central Africa along the course of the White Nile. Although the rise of the river in the S. begins in April, its effects are not felt in Egypt until June. The inundat= ion continues about three mouths, and reaches its highest point at the end of September, though very often there is a sudden final rise in October. Early= in November it steadily subsides, and by the end of November the country it has covered begins to dry up. From that time the river flows within its natural limits, sinking gradually lower and lower, till the period of the next rise= . On the height of the inundations depends the prosperity of the country for the ensuing year. Too great a rise involves a destruction of dikes and a loss of life and property. A deficiency leaves large tracts unmoistened and unfertilised, and the canals not sufficiently filled to supply water for irrigation during the dry season.

Great improvements have been introduced o= f late years into the system of irrigation in Egypt. By a carefully constru= cted arrangement of canals, siphons, escapes, weirs, etc., it is arranged that e= ven during a bad season a great part of the Nile valley shall receive its share of the mud-charged water. At the some time t= here are still large tracts of "sha= râki" land - that is, land which is exempt from taxation on account of receiving = no flood-water - which call for some system of irrigation to bring them into cultivation. In order to meet this difficulty the Government has created the immense reservoir at Aswân (see p. 516).

The importance, therefore, of watching th= e rise of the river and regulating it by moans of dikes, sluices, and canals, has always been recognised. At the present day the progress of the inundation is telegraphed from Wâdi Halfa, just as in old times messages were sent = from Aswân, and afterwards from Semna, the southernmost point of the kingd= om in the days of Amen-em-hat III. Several inscriptions at Semna record the he= ight of the Nile at different times during the reign of this king, to whom Egypt was indebted for the Lake Moeris and many other important irrigation works (see p. [60]). From them it =

INHABITANTS. [27]

would appear that the highest recorded ri= se was 27 ft. 3 in. above any inundation of the present day. The height of the inundation varies in different parts of Egypt. At Cairo a good average rise is about 26 f= eet.

The inundation alters the appearance of t= he country very considerably. Instead of a normal river valley, with a broad stream flowing between cultivated fields, we see a great flood lying between two banks of desert-cliffs or slopes, studded with innumerable islands, on which are palm-shadowed villages and towns, connected with each other by causeways. So Herodotus describes the Delta when he saw it. At this time communication by sailing-boat is possible over all parts of the submerged l= and; but later on, when the flood has partially run off, the water becomes too shallow for boats, and the long and wearisome detours by the dusty dike-causeways, which every traveller in Egypt in October and November= knows too well, become inevitable. The mud is too soft for paths to be formed as = yet; but very soon the waters have disappeared, and almost before one can realise the change, the fertilising mud has dried up, and one is riding, where only= a few weeks before boats were sailing, on a hard path, with verdant crops ris= ing on every hand.

During the height of the inundation the agricultural population is left without its usual occupation for some weeks. The ingenious inhabitants of many of the villages utilise this period of enforced leisure in manufacturing forged antiquities to sell to tourists du= ring the ensuing

winter.

II. INHABITANT= S.

The total Population of Egypt= proper may be stated roughly at 10 millions. The returns published of the l= ast Census taken on June 1, 1897, sho= w the population of Egypt<= /st1:country-region> proper to have numbered 9,734,000, an increase of 2,900,000 as compared with the census of 1882, or about 43 p= er cent, in 15 years. It was larger in ancient times. Herodotus states that th= ere were 20,000 populous cities in the time of Amasis: Diodoros reckons the population at 7 millions; and Josephus places it at 7 1/2 millions in the r= eign of Vespasian. It had, however, sunk in the time of the Mamelukes to 3 milli= ons. Since the accession of Mohammed Ali it has steadily increased. Esna is the = most densely populated district; the Fayyûm and Behêra the most sparsely. The proportion of the sexes is about equal.

The Various elements of the motley popula= tion of Egypt may be divided into Egyptians, who may again be subdivided into the country population (Fellâhin<= /i>.), and the inhabitants of the towns (N= âs Beledi or Belediya); the wandering tribes (Beduw' or Bedouins, Bishârin, etc.); Nubians (Barabra); Abyssinians (Habbashi) and Negr= oes (Sûdân); Turks (Tûrki); Greeks (Rûmi); Levant= ines; Armenians; Jews (Yahûdi);= and Europeans (Afrangi),

The Fellâhîn (Ibn el-'Arab) are the most num= erous, and the most important element, amounting to more than three-fourths of the whole population. The Fellâh<= /i> (fem. Fellâhah) is only t= o a certain extent the representative of the conquering Arabs who came with 'Am= r; these wore so mingled and intermarried with the original inhabitants, and w= ith Abyssinians, Nubians, and others, that they present but very slight resembl= ance to the original stock. In many parts of Egypt the peasantry exhibit m= ore likeness to the old Egyptians, as depicted on the

[28] INHABITANTS.

monuments, than to the true descendants o= f the Arab conquerors, the Bedouins, and there is little doubt that the majority = of them have far more ancient Egyptian than Arab blood in their veins, though = they call themselves Arabi. They are= , as a rule, a handsome, well-formed race, with fine oval faces, bright deep-set b= lack eyes, straight thick noses, large well-formed mouths, full lips, beautiful teeth, broad shoulders, and well-shaped limbs. It is astonishing that such well-shaped, perfectly-proportioned men and women should grow out of such pot-bellied, shrunken-limbed things as the children are. The colour of the = skin varies considerably - light and tawny in the north of Egypt, = and gradually getting darker in the south. The most beautiful tint is the deep bronze one of Upper Egypt. The fell&acir= c;hin are patient, industrious labourers, and docile and intelligent when young. = Their dwellings are made of mud-bricks, and sometimes only of mud and straw; the thatch is of palm branches or dura straw and rags. Most of them have two ro= oms, but very few are two stories high. Near the roof are apertures for the admission of light and air. The furniture consists of a few mats and some earthen vessels. Tourists often comment with surprise on the apparent miser= able poverty of those dwellings, but in reality they are quite suited to the climate; and the fellâh desires nothing more complicated. =

Broad made of millet or maize forms the s= taple of their food, together with the common vegetables of the country, milk, cheese, eggs, and dates; meat is seldom tasted. The ordinary meal is broad dipped in a mixture called dukkah, composed of lentils seasoned with salt, pepper, onions, and a variety of he= rbs. The two luxuries in which the fellâh chiefly delights are tobacco and coffee.

The dress of the fellâh needs little description, consisting at the most of a pair of drawers (libâs), a long full shirt or gown of blue cotton or linen= (kamis), a brown goat's-wool cloak = (zâbût), and a white or= brown felt cap (libda). The more well= -to-do wear a tarbûsh maghrabi, = a low red fez with a blue tassel, and a turban of white, red, or yellow cotton or muslin. Shoes, when worn, are broad, pointed, red (zerbûn), or yellow (balgha) morocco; in winter a brown and white striped cloak is worn in addition. Som= e of the very poor classes, however, have nothing but the cotton shirt and a lit= tle cotton cap; and when at work find the cap alone sufficient. The fellâhîn women when quite young are generally models of beauty = in form and limbs, and often pleasing in countenance; the eyes especially being very beautiful. They lose their good looks, both of shape and feature, howe= ver, at a very early age. Their dress is as simple as the men's, consisting of a pair of white cotton or linen drawers (shintyân); a blue linen or cotton shirt like the men's, reaching to the foot; a face v= eil (burko) of thick black crape; a= nd a long dark blue muslin or linen veil (turba) covering the head and hanging down behind. In Upper Egypt most of the women wear nothing but a large piece of dark brown woollen stuff (hulalîya) wrapped round the = body and fastened over the shoulders, with a piece of the same for a turban. Nea= rly all wear trumpery brass ornaments, blacken the edge of their eyelids with kohl, stain their finger and toe n= ails and the palms of their hands with h= enna, and tattoo different parts of their person. Plain silver rings are much wor= n by the men.

The Inhabitants of the Towns differ in many respects from the peasantry, though the distinction is chiefly noticeable as regards the

INHABITANTS. [29]

Cairenes, who consider themselves, and wi= th some justice, the superiors, mentally and physically, of the fellâhîn. No doubt they are a more mixed race, showing signs bo= th of European and African descent, the result of the constant introduction of white and black slaves.

The dress of the lower orders of townspeo= ple, both men and women, is much the same as that of the fellâhîn. T= hat of the men of the middle and higher classes consists of a pair of full draw= ers (libâs); a shirt of linen, cotton, silk, or muslin (kamis)= ; a short, sleeveless vest of cloth or striped silk and cotton (sudêra); a long vest of stri= ped silk and cotton (kuftân), reaching to the ankles, and with long sleeves extending beyond the fingers,= but opening at the wrist; a girdle of silk or muslin (hezâm) wound round the waist; and over all a long cloth c= oat (gibba), or a black woollen clo= ak ('abaya). On the head is worn a sma= ll, close-fitting cotton cap (takî= ;ya), and over this the red cloth fez (ta= rbûsh), with a tassel of blue or black silk, round which is wound a piece of white = or figured muslin, or a Cashmere shawl, thus forming the turban (imma). Red or yellow shoes, and sometimes socks complete the attire. The above is the proper native dress, = but a great many of the middle and upper classes, especially in the towns, now = wear a semi-European dress; and the Turkish tarbûsh, without a turban, is = worn instead of the Egyptian tarbûsh (maghrabi). The dress of the women consists of the shintiyân; the kamîs; a long vest (yelek) something like the kuft&aci= rc;n, or a short one (anteri); a shawl girdle; and a gibba of cloth, v= elvet, or silk, something like the man's, or a jacket (saltah). The headdress is formed of a takîya and tarb&u= circ;sh, with muslin or crape wound round it, forming what is called a rabta, and over this hangs a long = piece of muslin embroidered at the ends (= turba). Sewn on the top of the turban is a round convex ornament of plain gold, or = gold and diamonds (kurs); and the ha= ir hangs down behind in numerous braids, tied with black silk, and with little ornaments of gold attached. Shoes of yellow or red morocco, and ornaments of various kinds, complete the indoor dress of women of the upper and middle classes. On going out they wear in addition a large loose silk gown (lôb); a face-veil of muslin = (burko), concealing the whole of th= e face except the eyes, and reaching nearly to the feet; and over all, from the he= ad to the feet, a black or white silk cloak (habara).

The Bedouins (Beduw', sing. Bedawi; there is no such word as "Bedawîn," whi= ch is a European invention) are the wandering Arabs living in the desert on ei= ther side of the Nile, and in the Sinaït= ic peninsula. The total number living upon Egyptian territory is about 246,000= , of whom 146,000 live in villages, or hamlets, and the remaining 100,000 live a wandering life. The Beduw' are divided into seventy-five tribes, of which t= he principal are as follows: -

Tribe.         &= nbsp;     Number.        &= nbsp; Province.

Awlad Ali=          19,500        &= nbsp;    Behêra.

Guement     &= nbsp;     6,000        &= nbsp;      do.

Nagama&nb= sp;          6,000        &= nbsp;      Gharbiya Giza.

Hanadi &n= bsp;           10,= 500        &= nbsp;    Sharkiya.

Temêla            = 5,000        &= nbsp;      do.

Hewêta            5,0= 00        &= nbsp;      Kaliûbiya.

Harabi &n= bsp;            9,500        &= nbsp;      Fayyûm.<= /p>
Samalûs.           5,= 000        &= nbsp;      do.

Fargan. &= nbsp;           5,= 000        &= nbsp;      Fayyûm.

Fawaia&nb= sp;            13,000        &= nbsp;    Fayyûm, Beni Sûef.

Do'afa &n= bsp;            7,000        &= nbsp;      Beni Sûef.

Ma'aza &n= bsp;           5,0= 00        &= nbsp;      Beni Sûef, Minia.

Gawazi &n= bsp;           10,= 000        &= nbsp;    Minia.

Eleka &nb= sp;            = 8,000        &= nbsp;      Kena, Esna.

Ababda &n= bsp;          19,000        &= nbsp;    do. do.

Of the remaining sixty tribes, twenty-five number between 1000 and 5000 and the remainder number less than 1000 persons each. The Bedouins in Lower Egypt speak Arabic, as do also some of the trib= es in Upper Egypt; but the Ababda, who occupy the country between the

[30] INHABITANTS.

Nile and the Red S= ea from Kena, southward, speak a different language, which is known as Bedy or To-Bedyawîya. This language is spoken also by the Bisharîn, who= se territory lies south of the Ababda, and by the Hadéndum in the vicinity = of Suâkin. Many of the Ababda, who live near the = Nile, also speak Arabic. The Ababda and Bisharîn are supposed by some authorities to be the descendants of the Blemmyes (Bega), who formerly occu= pied part of Nubia. There is a resemblance between the Ababda and the Bishârîn, and= a certain amount of intermarriage takes place.

There is a considerable difference betwee= n the nomad Bedouins and those who live in villages. The latter have lost much of= the wild character of the desert Arab and become more civilised. Some still kee= p up the Bedawi tradition, as in the Pyramid-village at Gîza, but others h= ave lost it and are indistinguishable from the surrounding peasantry, as the pe= ople of Luxor and Kurna, who are of Bedawi ancestry, but only betray it by an occasional Bedouin pronunciation, such as wên for fên, "where,&quo= t; or Hajjâj for Haggâg.

The Copts (Kubti, Gubti, or, at Cairo, Ub= ti, pl. Kubt) have usually been considered to be the descendants of the ancient Egyptians; but they are by = no means an unmixed ratio, and the majority of the Mohammedan fellâh&ici= rc;n are just as much descendants of the ancient Egyptians as the Copts are. The Coptic fellâhîn would be quite indistinguishable from their Mus= lim fellow-villagers, but for the crosses tattooed on their arms. Their Arabic = name may be derived from Koptos in Upper Egypt, now Kuft, the headquarters of the Christians till the Mohammedan conquest; but = it has probably some analogy with the Greek !Æ(bBJ@H. Their dress is the same as= the Moslems, except that they often wear a black or blue turban, which the latt= er rarely do. The number of Copts is about 400,000. In Upper Egypt there are w= hole villages composed of them, and they are numerous at <= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Cairo; there are but few in the Delta. = The town Copts are in general better educated than the rest of their countrymen, and are extensively employed in all the public offices as clerks, accountan= ts, etc.

The language of the Copts of the present = day is that of the rest of the country, the Egyptian dialect of Arabic. Coptic is = only used in some of the Church prayers, and then they are repeated in Arable for the benefit of the hearers; indeed, the priests who use them have merely le= arnt them by heart, and know hardly anything of the language. The Coptic language began to fall into disuse after the Mohammedan conquest, and by the 15th or= 16th century was replaced by the Arabic, though isolated survivals of its use ha= ve been recorded even into the 19th century. Coptic is the language of the Old Egyptians. After the introduction of Christianity into Egypt i= t began to be written from left to right, contrary to the ancient and Oriental mann= er, and in a character mostly adapted from the Greek, from which the Copts also borrowed many words and expressions. But notwithstanding the modification it has undergone, it is still the language written on the monumental walls of = old Egypt, = and to it the world is indebted for the key by which the hieroglyphs have been interpreted. Coptic MSS. are rarely written on vellum, but on charta bombycina, or cotton paper.= A few exist on papyrus.

The Nubians may be considered as the inhabitants of the country

INHABITANTS. [31]

between the First Cataract and Khart&ucir= c;m; Nubia being the title under which all that district is known to us, just as the Greeks called it Ethiopia. By the Arabs the Nubians are called Ba= râbra, sing. Berberi, a name applied m= uch in the same sense as "Barbaroi" by the Greeks. They are of totally distinct race from both Egyptians and Ar= abs, and speak a language entirely unlike Arabic. Thus "island," in Ar= abic gezira, in Nubian is artiga; "boat" in Arabic= markab, is in Nubian kûb; "where," Arab= ic fên, Nubian sê, and s= o on. The syntactical order also is different. Many Arabic words arc used, such a= s ghafîr, "watchman," etc., just as English words are used in Welsh. In the Nile valley Nubian bears much the same relation to Arabic as in England Welsh do= es to English. The northernmost point at which Nubian is spoken is the small t= own of Darâw, south of Kom Ombo. Aswân is bilingual. On the = island of Elephanti= ne Nubian only is spoken. Nubian is the language= of the country as far south as the Dongola province, beyond which it is again replaced by Arabic.

Owing to the extreme poverty of the great= er part of their own country, great numbers of Nubians come to Egypt, whore th= ey are employed in the towns as doorkeepers (bawwâb), grooms (sâis), coachmen (= arbagi), house-servants (khaddâm), and cooks (tabâkh), each of these classes being constituted as a guild with its own shêkh, wno is responsible for the character of the members. They are preferred to Egyptian servants as being = more honest and truthful, and generally cleaner. They are devotedly attached to their country and their countrymen. Brave and independent in characters they differ also in these respects from the Egyptians; and in some parts of Nubi= a their constant feuds keep up a warlike spirit, in which their habit of going about armed enables them frequently to indulge. Those who know how to read and wr= ite are in a far greater proportion than in Egypt among the same class; f= or, with the exception of their chiefs, they have no wealthy or upper orders. L= ike the blacks, they are fond of intoxicating liquors; and they extract a brandy and a sort of wine from the date-fruit, as well as bûza, a fermented drink made from barley, bread, and many other things, which are found to furnish this imperfect kind of beer. They = also are fond of smoking hashish. Th= ey are skilful boatmen, and many dahabîya crews are wholly Berberis. At Aswân all the boatmen are Berberis living on the island of Elephanti= ne.

The Turks, relics of the old Turkish domination (Turkey is still nominally a pashalik = of the Ottoman Empire), wore formerly a more numerous and important section of= the population than they are now, but their numbers are diminishing, nor do they fill, as was at one time the case, all the more important civil and military posts. They are chiefly to be found in the towns, employed as officials, soldiers, merchants, and shopkeepers. Many of them are emancipated Circassi= an slaves, while others are the descendants of Turks born in Egypt, = and of very mixed origin. They are as a rule handsome and dignified in appearance,= and courteous in their manner to strangers, though haughty and overbearing to t= he natives. The Turkish language has contributed a certain number of words to = colloquial Arabic, but as a language it is only used for military purposes, the milita= ry organisation of Egyp= t being of Turkish origin. The military grades have Turkish designations, suc= h as Ferik (general), Miralai (colonel), Ka&i= uml;makam (lieut.-colonel), Saghkologhasi= , Bimbashi (major, lit. "head o= f a thousand"), Yuzbashi (capt= ain, "head of a hundred"), Omb= ashi

[32] INHABITANTS.

(corporal, "head of ten"); and = all words of command are in Turkish, as durtinji tob, patesh! ("Number four gun, fire!"). The titles Pasha (Ar. Bâsha), Bey, and Effendi are Turkish; Bâsha is often used by the fellâhîn as a titl= e of respect for European employers of labour; Effendi is used for anybody (except a servant) who wears a Turkish fez (ordinary tarbûsh, not maghrabi); but Effendin= a ("Our Master") is a term of respect for the Khedive alone, and Effendim, with the Turkish affixed definite article im, is the pro= per phrase for "sir," which all servants should be taught to use inst= ead of the too familiar Arabic ya Suli<= /i>, which they use to one another. The word Effendi is ultimately derived from the Byzantine Greek title "Û2X<J0H. Bey is the same as Beg<= /i>, "lord."

The Abyssinians and Negroes, of whom there are a considerable number in Egypt, are mostly slaves. The latter come chiefly from the Sudan and Dârfûr. The females of the former race are much prized for their beautiful figures, agreeable features, and amiability of character. Negresses are principally employed as domestic servants. Though the slave-t= rade is officially forbidden in Egypt, and slaves who desire it can obtain their freedom, it certainly cannot yet be said that slavery is done away with, nor indeed are slaves as a rule anxious to obtain their release, as they are generally very well treated and sure of support in sickness and old age.

The Levantines may be described as Arabic-speaking Christians of European and Syrian origi= n; there are few of them who, in addition to their mother tongue, are not acquainted with several other languages. They are chiefly engaged in commer= ce, many of them being very wealthy. Moet of the subordinate employés at the Consulates are Levantines, their linguis= tic acquirements rendering them peculiarly fitted for such posts. The term Levantine is sometimes applied to persons of European origin born in the Ea= st.

The Armenians form a small but important community. They are chiefly engaged in commerce = and trades, especially as goldsmiths and jewellers; but many of them hold impor= tant posts in the government offices. Some of Egypt's most distinguished pu= blic men - Nubar, Tigrane, and Artin Pashas - have been Armenians.

The Jews (Yahûd, Yahûdîya, sing. Yahûdi) are often remarkable in Egypt for their fair hair, blue eves, and white skin, just as in Europe they are generally to be distinguished by opposite characteristics. The str= eet money-changers (serâf) in= the towns are Jews, and there are many wealthy merchants and shopkeepers, though the Jews' quarter is a poor, miserable-looking one, and they themselves are said to be dirty in person and unclean in their habits. They are, however, subjected to no persecution, nor do they labour under any civil disabilitie= s, though they are contemptuously regarded by the Mohammedans.

The Europeans are an important and ever-increasing section of the population, especially = in Cairo and Alexandria and the towns of the Delta. The total number in 1882 was 84,000, of which 35,000 were Greeks, 16,000 Italians, 15,000 French, 6000 British, exclusive= of the troops and inclusive of Maltese, and 12,000 Germans, Austrians, Swiss, Russians, &c., &c. Since then the European population has greatly increased, especially the Greek and Italian elements. There are many perman= ent settlers, particularly at Alex= andria, where the wealthiest members of the mercantile community are Greeks. Nearly= all the

INHABITANTS. [33]

small general shops at which European art= icles can be purchased, both in the Delta and up the country, are kept by Greeks, Maltese, or Italians, especially the former, who are omnipresent in Egypt, = just as they used to be under the Ptolemies and Romans. They form a useful element = of the population, and are strong supporters of the British regime. A large proportion of the other Europeans are a floating population. There are a certain number of Frenchmen employed under the Government and by the Suez C= anal Company, and a considerable element of French origin in Cairo, but French influence in Egypt is steadily declining, and the use of the French language diminishing, its place being taken by English as the dominant European speech. All the young= er educated natives speak English, not French as heretofore, and soon French w= ill not be understood except in Cairo and alon= g the Suez Canal, whore it has a strong foothold owing to= the French origin and associations of the canal company. The British proper are becoming more numerous; there are some first-rate British mercantile houses= at Alexandria and Cairo, while Englishmen hold high official posts, and a large number are employed as engineers; the European staff of the railways is chi= efly British. The British garrison is of course important in Alexandria and Cairo.

Relations with Natives. Na= tives and Europeans, the latter generally included by the former under the general term "Afrangi," live peaceably together. European travellers need= be under little apprehension of meeting with rudeness; on the contrary, they w= ill find themselves treated as a rule with politeness and good nature, except at one or two places which have a bad reputation, such as Abydos. Individual villages differ in t= his respect: in one the inhabitants will be all friendliness, while in another, dose by, a single traveller may be treated with scant courtesy. When this is the case it is usually due to the bad influence of some stupid or fanatical shêkh. Actual violence need rarely be apprehended even among the most discourteous, and if it does occur, it is sure to be partly the fault of the Europeans. No natives should over be treated with unnecessary hauteur: they are not "niggers," and should not be spoken to as if they were; on the ot= her hand, unnecessary familiarity is equally to be avoided, especially with the dragomans and donkey-boys, who are apt to become extremely impertinent owin= g to the injudiciousness of tourists (especially ladies) in talking to them too familiarly, and have in consequence to be sharply kept to heel by the resid= ents and visitors who know the customs of the country. A tourist must never stri= ke a native, who will resent from a chance stranger the personal correction whic= h he takes as a matter of course from a native superior. Native gentlemen and officials must be treated with exactly the same degree of courtesy as would= be shown to Europeans. Pashas and Beys should be addressed, in Arabic, as saadtak, lit. "Your Blessedness"; saat 'l-Basha, saat 'l-Bey, "His Blessedness= " the Pasha, or Bey, is the correctly polite way of speaking of a Pasha or Be= y. A plain Effendi is addressed as gen&a= circ;bak or hadretak, "Your Honour.= " Genâbak may, but hadretak should not, be used by a European to a native gentleman, nor would the latter accord it to him; a well-mannered fellah will, however, always use it to a European traveller, = the familiar eute, "thou," being considered impolite. If the traveller speaks any Arabic with his serv= ants or donkey-boys he should never allow them to address

d

[34] RELIGION.

him as "thou," which implies ab= solute equality and corresponding freedom to obey or not at pleasure. It should be borne in mind, especially by ladies, that in conversing with a native no enquiry must be made as to whether he is married or not, or as to the healt= h of his womenkind; such enquiries may be politely answered, but the enquirer may rest assured that he or she is regarded as an offensively inquisitive and impertinent person. In Mohammedan countries women are regarded as being of = no interest except to their own relatives (see p. [35]).

IV. RELIGION.<= o:p>

1. Islâm= .

Islâm, i.e. subjection to God, is the name applied to the religion formulated by Mohammed (Muhámmad, "the praised"), the great prophet of Arabia. It rests on four foundations: 1. The Kurân; 2. Sonna, or tradition; 3: The harmony in opinion of orthodox Moslem teachers; 4. Kias, or reasoning.

The actual creed of Islâm maybe sum= med up thus: (a) Belief in God (All&ac= irc;h) - "there= is no God but God and Mohammed is His prophet (Lâ illâha il Allâh, w Muhammad rasûl Allâh)";= (b) Belief in angels; (c) Belief in written revelation, i.e. the Kurân and the proph= ets; (d) Belief in predestination; (e) Belief in judgment after death = and eternal life.

The Dîn (Religion), or practical side of Mohammedanism, is fourfold, and requires of its adherents: (a) Prayers and purifications; (b) Alms; (c) Fasting; (d) The Hagg, or pilgrimage to Mecca.

The Kurân, or sacred book, is believed by pious Mohammedans to be of supernatural orig= in, and the revelation of it was vouchsafed to the Prophet during a period of twenty-three years. It is divided into Sûras or portions. Moslem prayers are chiefly based upon it, and these, together = with long portions from the Kurân itself, are committed to memory as a par= t of every boy's education, though they often convey no meaning to the learner. Tradition is handed down by means of the prophets. They are believed to be = free from mortal sin and granted divine power, with which they work miracles. Mohammed is the chief prophet and the exponent of the will of God; among the most important and next to him in rank are Jesus, Abraham, Moses, Jacob, No= ah, and Adam.

The Moslem doctrine that "the faithful" are elect has probably been the cause why, as a religious se= ct, Mohammedans have made but few attempts at proselytising. They consider themselves as chosen of God by virtue of their belief In God and Mohammed, though they also believe man's future destiny must be subject to his mode of life. Yet even hero predestination comes in, and, according to the Kur&acir= c;n, the salvation or damnation of souls is absolutely determined beforehand.

At the great day of judgement Asrâfîl, the angel, shall sound two mighty blasts: one shall ki= ll every living thing, the other shall arouse the dead. They that are righteous shall pass over by a hair's-breadth bridge (Es-Sirât, the Chinvat of the Persians) in= to a paradise of sensual delights, while the evil ones shall fall from this same bridge into hell, which is yawning below.

The practical side of Islamism requires t= hat five times during the day (immediately after sunset, nightfall, daybreak, noonday, and about 1 1/2 hr. before sunset) the faithful Moslem must recite his prayers. Washing and turning his face to the East - to Mecca - and removing

RELGION. [36]

his shoes, the worshipper, making certain prostrations, recites the required formulae from the Kurân. Very ofte= n he recites only a short prayer called = el-fât'ha - opening - so called from being the first Sûra in the Kurân. It runs thus: "In the name of God, the merciful, the gracious. Praise be = to God, the Lord of creatures the merciful and gracious, the Prince in the day= of Judgment. We serve thee, we pray to thee for help; lead us in the way of th= ose to whom thou hast shown mercy, upon whom no wrath resteth, and who go not astray. Amen." The fellâhîn are not very scrupulous as reg= ards their prayers, and by an increasing number of Egyptians religions exercises= of all kinds are, unless they are accompanied by feasting or zikrs (see p. [87]), fast becoming regarded as more symptoms of respectability.

The observance of the yearly fast of Ramadân is also essential, = when for a whole month the devout believer may neither eat, drink, nor smoke from sunrise until sunset. As a set-off the true believers generally eat, drink,= and make merry most of the night. By a large number of the fellâhîn= the fast is more honoured in the breach than the observance; and those who are = not saim (fasting) enjoy themselves as= much in the evening an their more scrupulous brethren, and are equally solicitou= s to claim the usual dispensation from work earlier than during the rest of the year, in order that home may be reached and food and tobacco seized upon directly "the sunset is consummated," lammâ el-maghrib khallâs. The Moslem year being lun= ar, the fast of Ramadân travels the round of the seasons: in summer its observance causes great privations.

The Hagg, or Pilgrimage to Mecca, though= not absolutely essential, is enjoined on every man who can possibly undertake i= t. The pilgrims used to endure great hardships in their journey to and from Me= cca, to which many of them succumbed, but the existence of railways and steamshi= ps on the larger portion of the route has of late years greatly modified these rigours.

It cannot be said that the Morality of Islam is of a very high order, though adapted to the climate and character of the Orientals. Polygamy is sanctioned on the ground that the Prophet had four wives. The treatment of women is a great blot upon the Moslem system. Under it women are no better than chattels, and are considered to have no souls. The virtue of hospitability is still honourably observed, but that of frugality has degenerated largely into mere sordid avarice, the besetting sin of the Egyptian. Wine and strong drink are forbi= dden by the Prophet, but in Egypt certainly that precept is set at naught. This fact, ns well as the growing indifference to prayers and fasting, noticed above, is symptomatic of the easy-going nature of Egyptian Mohammedanism, due partly to the cheerful and sensible nature of the people as a whole, and the enormous influence of Wes= tern civilisation in its midst.

There are four orthodox sects of Mohammed= ans: the Hanefites, the Shâfi'ites, the Malekites, and the Hambalites. The= se are known as Sûnnis or Sunnites (from sonna, "tradition"). From the Orthodox or Sunnite party the Shi'as or Shî'ites broke of= f and gained considerable ground both in Persia and Egypt. The Shî'as expect the coming of a kind of Messiah, called "el-Mahdi," the lost of the Imâms. There have been many fal= se Mahdis; the best-known of them is Muhammad Ahmad, whom we call "the Mahdi," who caused the Sudan Rebellion (p. 563).

d 2

[36] RELIGION.

$$$ The Dervishes (darwish, pl. darâwish) are both the monks and the freemasons of the Ea= st. They are divided into innumerable sects and orders. The principal Egyptian orders, with their subdivisions, are: -

1. The Rifâ'îya, founded by the Seyyid Ahmad Rifâ'l; its members carry black banners, = and wear black, dark blue, or dark green turbans. The chief sects of this order are: (a) The Saadîya, founded by Saad ed-Dîn el-Gibawî; th= ey carry green banners, and wear turbans of the same colour, or of the dark hu= e of the Rifâîya in general. The members of this sect perform some curious ceremonies and do various snake-charming feats. (b) The Ilwân&icir= c;ya or Awlâd Ilwân go t= hrough remarkable performances at festivals, such as thrusting nails into their ey= es and bodies, eating live coals and glass, breaking stones on their chests, &c.

2. The Kâdirîya, founded by Abd el-Kadîr el-Ghilâni, who was the guardian of the tomb of Abû Hanîfa, the founder of one of the four orthodox sec= ts of Islâm, at Baghdad. Their performances consist in shrieking or howling (see below). The banners= and turbans are white. Most of the members are fishermen, and carry nets of var= ious colours in processions.

3. The Ahmedîya, founded by Shêkh Ahmed el-Bedâwi; its banners and turbans are r= ed. The chief sects of this order are: (a) The Bêyûmîya,= known by their long hair; (b) the Shinnâwiya, and (c) the Awlâd Nû, all young men, who wear high caps with tu= fts of coloured cloth on the top, and strings of beads across their breasts, and carry wooden swords and a thick-corded whip. The Shinnâwîya and= the Awlâd Nû used to play an important part in the ceremonies at Tanta in honour of= their founder (see p. 3).

4. The Barâmîya or Bûrhamîya, found= ed by Shêkh Ibrâhîm ed-Desûkî; its banners and turb= ans are green. The great festival of its members is at Desûk (soe p. 31).=

Besides these orders, there are others th= at exist in Egypt, though not originally founded there. Of these the principal is that of

The Môlawîya (in Turkish Mevlevi), the large= st of all the orders, founded by the (Môla or Mullah) Jelâl-ed-d&icir= c;n er-Rûmi, of Balkh, in Persia, who died at Koniah ab= out 1278 A.D. (672 A.H.), and was the author of the celebrated mystic poem, the= Methnevi Sherîf. The Môlawîya have come to be considered the most aristocratic of the Dervish orders, and most of the Sultans have of late been enrolled as membe= rs of the order. Their headquarters are at Koniah, in A= sia Minor, the office of shêkh being hereditary in a family = of the name of Tjêlebi. The performances of the Môlawîya con= sist in dancing, or rather whirling (see p. 116). Among other orders may be mentioned: - The Nakshibendîy= a, founded by Mohammed Nakshibendi, a contemporary of Othman I. The Bektashîya, another Turkish = order, founded by Hadji Bektash, of Khorasan, who lived for some years at the cour= t of Orkhan I.; in connection with the Janissaries they played an important part= in Turkish history. Their peculiar doctrines are decidedly heretical, and they= are thought to have some connection with the ancient sect of the Assassins. The Gulshenîya, founded by Shêkh Ibrâhîm Gulsheni, who = died at Cairo, A.D. 1538. The Bekrîya, The Afîfîya. The Demirdashîya, &c. <= /o:p>

Most of the dervishes are tradesmen, arti= sans, or fellâhîn, &c. (the Zemaliya or water-carriers are nearly all low-class dervishes), and only =

RELIGION. [37]

assist occasionally at the ceremonies of = their order, but others make it their occupation to perform at festivals, funeral= s, &c. These last are called fakirs, and often lead a wandering life, subsisting on alms. Their dress is usually a patchwork coat (dilk) of many colours, and they carry a staff with strips of different coloured cloths fastened to the top. Dervishes are not forbidden = to marry. There is no doubt that the higher orders of dervishes have elaborate= d a somewhat mystical, and even heretical, interpretation of Islam. A considera= ble amount of learning, as well as wealth and comfort. Is found among them, as among the Bektashîya ment= ioned above, whose pretty monastery is referred to below (p. [38]). The common or= ders are however as ignorant and poverty-stricken as the mediaeval friars of Europe, which they resemble.

The religious exercises of the dervishes consist chiefly in the performance of sikrs. The chief features of these sikrs are continued invocations of God, accompanied by a motion of the head, or of the whole body, or of the arms; and the performance of a dance. These sikrs are performed all over the c= ountry on great occasions, as at the feast of Bairam, by the villagers, and are regarded as part of the "fun of the fair," though an air of relig= ious decorum is always preserved, and accentuated if there are any Europeans loo= king on.

There are several colleges or monasteries= (tekîyas) of the different or= ders in Cairo, which the traveller who has time may find an interest in visiting, and many will = no doubt be anxious to see the performances of the dervishes.

The principal College or Monastery of the Howling Dervishes (Tekîya Kadrîya) is at Kasr el-'Aini, on the banks of the Nile, on the road to Old Cairo, adjo= ining the Hospital and School for Medicine (see p. 94).

The following Dervish monasteries are als= o well worthy of a visit to those interested in the history and institutions of the various orders as represented in Egypt. They belong to fratern= ities that are chiefly Turkish and Asiatic, and which number few if any Egyptians amongst their members.

The Tekîya en-Nakshibendîya, in the Habbanîya or Darb el-Gamamîs. This is a monastery built by Abbas Pasha for the order of Nakshibendi dervi= shes resident in or visiting Cairo<= /st1:place>. It forms a quadrangle enclosing a small garden with a Hanefîya for ablution in the centre. There are separate rooms, or colts, for the accommodation of fifteen or twenty members. The ha= ll for prayer and the silent or meditative sikr, are on the N. side; the walls being adorned with scrolls and inscriptions in Persian and Arabic characters. The chamber of the shêkh is on the E.,= and his house on the S. side of the building.

The Tekîya Habbaniya, in the street called by the same name, and not far from the last-named. This institution, as well as the sebîl and school adjoining, was built by Sultan Mahm&ucir= c;d II., and is not so much a dervish tekîya, in the proper sense of the word, as a training college for those devoted to religious learning. <= /o:p>

Ascending a flight of stops, you find you= rself in a quadrangular open court surrounded by an arcade formed by marble colum= ns, into which look the cells of the students, who may generally be soon readin= g or chanting within. The centre of the court is planted with trees and shrubs, = in the midst of which is the place of ablution shaded by a <= /p>

[38] RELIGION.

cupola supported by marble columns. The peaceful aspect of the place contrasts remarkably with the bustle of the ou= ter street.

The Tehîya Gulsheni. This is situated near the S. side of the mosque of Muayyad, n= ear the Babe z-Zuwêla. Ascending a flight of steps and turning to the lef= t, you enter a peculiar but picturesque retreat. The building forming the tekîya encloses, as usual, an open court, of which the greater portio= n is raised considerably above the level upon which you stand, and is spread with mats and carpets. In the midst stands a small square building containing the tomb of the shêkh, and supporting a whitewashed dome. The whole of th= e N. façade of this mausoleum is encased with coloured tiles of various patterns somewhat promiscuously arranged.

The Tekîya el-Maghâwrî, on Gebel Mokattam. This is the retreat of the Turkish Bektâshi dervishes previously mentioned (p. [36]), and should by all means be visited. It is s= ituated to the E. of the tombs of the Mamelukes, and just behind the modern buildin= gs of the Military Arsenal behind the Citadel, and on the right hand of the ro= ad up the Mokattam Hills. The tekîya projects from the hill, and may be distinguished from afar by a bank of verdant foliage with which it is front= ed, forming a charming little oasis in the desert. Ascending a long flight of steps, and passing through a small garden, you enter the tekîya, which has lately been rebuilt for the dervishes by the Khedive Ismaîl and s= ome of the princesses. The hall for the devotions of the members, the rooms of = the shêkh, and the sumptuous kitchen may be inspected. The shêkh of= the order, and the other members of the fraternity, are most polite and hospita= ble. Coffee is offered to visitors, and should be accepted; no payment is expect= ed, and presents are refused.

The small open court of the tekîya = leads into an ancient quarry similar to those of Tûra and Mas'âra, and penetrating the rock for more than 200 ft. A pathway of matting enclosed by= a wooden railing leads to the innermost recess, where lies buried the Sh&ecir= c;kh Abdallah el-Maghâwrî, i= .e. of the Grotto or Cave (Maghâra). His original name was Kêghûsûz, and he was a native of Adalia. Sent as deputy shêkh to Egypt= to propagate the doctrines of the fraternity, he settled there, and took the name of Abdallah.

Mohammedan Fes= tivals. These are celebrated accord= ing to the Mohammedan lunar year, so that no dates according to the European computation of time can be given. The Mohammedan year consists of 12 lunar months, and is therefore about 11 days shorter than the Gregorian year. The names of the months of the Mohammedan year are as follows: -

Muharram. =

Saffar.

Rabl' Awwal.

Rabl' Akher.

Gumad Awwal.

Gumad Akher.

Regeb.

Shaabân.

Ramadân.

Shawwâl.

Zilkada. <= /p>
Zillega. <= /p>

The Mohammedan day always begins at sunse= t, not at midnight, so that what we w= ould call the night of the 6th of the month they would call the night of the 7th= . It is very important to remember this. The Mohammedan month begins at sunset on the day when the new moon is visibl= e at or before sunset. It does not therefore always agree with the commenceme= nt of the lunar month according to exact astronomical calculations, and it may happen that the month will beg= in on a different day in two different countries. For Mohammedans, the two import= ant months are Ramadân, the month of the Fast, and Shawwâl,

RELIGION. [39]

the month after the Fast. The months comm= ence when two witnesses inform the Kâdi that that they have actually seen = the new moon. No printed calendar will satisfy a pious Mohammedan; the moon must actually have been seen for him to begin or end his fast. For the convenien= ce of business people, calendars are published giving the comparative dates of= the Gregorian, Mohammedan, and Coptic years. Several attempts have been made by scientific Mohammedans to make some absolute rule respecting the commenceme= nt of the months.

The following is a complete list of festi= vals. It must be noted that the minor feasts are not so much celebrated in the op= en as they used to be, and that the wilder dervish accompaniments, sikrs &c., are now in many cas= es not allowed. The subjoined account, however, may be allowed to stand on account= of its general interest.

FESTIVALS, &c., IN MUHARRAM.

Lêlet-As= hûra (the Eve or Night of Ash&uc= irc;ra). The ceremonies of the 10th of Muharram commemorate the death of Husên. The Shi'ite Moslems of Cairo, almost exclusively Persians, celebrate in a remarkable manner the "martyrdom" of Husên (son of Ali, and grandson of the Prophet), who was slain by Yezîd, near Kerbela, in 61 A.H. (680 A.D.). About two hours after the prayer of nightfall (eshê), a long procession is formed, which, starting from an okâleh called the Hôsh Ota&icir= c;, in the Gemalîya, passes by the W. side of the mosque of the Hasan&eci= rc;n (in which is said to be buried the head of Husên); then through a par= t of the Mûski and along by-streets to a house, generally in the Hamzâwi, which has been prepared for the occasion. The procession is headed by a number of well-dressed Persians, accompanied by men bearing fla= ming cressets and handsome banners. Then follows a white horse with saddle and trappings of pure white, on which is seated a young boy holding a small swo= rd in his hand, his head bare and smeared with blood, as are the trappings of = the horse. After him is led another horse, bay or brown, with saddle-cloth of r= ich cashmere, but having no rider. The white horse represents that of Husê= ;n. Then follow a company of about 50 dervishes and others robed in white - equ= ally divided on either side of the road, and facing, each other as they advance sideways - who gash their bare heads, like Baal's priests, with long, curved swords, while the blood streams from their wounds. They represent the relat= ives and friends of Husên, who perished as martyrs in his defence. These a= re succeeded by other fanatics, stripped to the waist, who lash themselves with iron chains, and thump their breasts with their fists and open palms. The n= ame of Husên is shouted incessantly in loud and piteous tones; occasional= ly also that of his brother Hasan, who was poisoned at <= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Medina. The procession ends by passing = into the court of the house above mentioned, which is brilliantly illuminated, a= nd in which an interested company has been for several hours seated, and liste= ning to the recitals appointed for the occasion. Here the scene is repeated, and= the fanatics continue to gash and smite themselves as in the street. When this semi-dramatic and barbarous portion of the ceremony is concluded, a most impressive scene takes place. The recital of the martyrdom of Husên is made in loud and pathetic tones by a môllah. All present are moved to sobs and tears, and to every expression of the most intense grief.

Admission to the house in which, this cer= emony takes place can be

[40] RELIGION.

obtained without difficulty, through frie= nds among the Persian community. Those who desire to witness the spectacle of t= he procession may do ho from the window of some house overlooking the streets through which it posses, or by taking up a position in the densely-crowded streets.

The Sunnite, or Orthodox Moslems, offer no opposition to the celebration of this solemn anniversary, but a large force= of police is employed to keep order.

Yôm Ash&= ucirc;ra (the day of Ashûra). = The 10th day of Muharram, to which this name is given, is observed with peculiar reverence by all Moslems. The first ten days, indeed, of the New Year, which generally go by the name of the Ash= r, are devoted to prayer and to deeds of charity. Amulets of various kinds are= now provided, especially for young children, who are carried through the street= s on their mothers' shoulders. A particular sweet dish is made by all classes on this day. The mosque of el-Hasanên (p. 112) is densely crowded during= the morning, chiefly by women, and presents an interesting scene. At the house alluded to in connection with the Lêlet-Ashûra, a further solemn service commemorates the Husên anniversary. A large company of Persia= ns assemble and strike their breasts with their hands as they listen to further recitals.

FESTIVALS, &c., IN SAFFAR.=

Return of the = Mahmal and of the pilgrim caravan.= This takes place towards the end of the second month, Saffar, generally about the 27th. Though numerous pilgrims, by rail and road, arrive at Cairo before the caravan, and enter the= city, escorted by their families, with music and rejoicing, there is a formal procession, very similar to that of the departing caravan in the tenth month (see p. [44]). After remaining one night, or more, in the district N. of Ca= iro towards Abasîya, the cort&egr= ave;ge, preceded by a body of infantry, and the Bashi-Bazûk guard of the Mahm= al, enters the Bab en-Nasr, and passes through the streets, beneath the Bab ez-Zuwêla, along the Darb el-Ahmar and the Darb el-Wisîr, to the Rumêla (or Place Mohammed Ali), where it is solemnly received by the Khedive. This is a very impressive scene, and should on no account be omitt= ed by the traveller, especially if he should not happen to have been in Cairo at the time of the departure of the Mahmal for= Mecca. The best p= oint of view is from the road a little beyond the Khedive's kiosque. The Mahmal is a pyramidal wooden erect= ion, hung round with gorgeous embroideries and carried by a camel. It is empty, = but two copies of the Kurân are suspended from it.

FESTIVALS, &c., IN RABI' AWWAL.<= /o:p>

The Môlid en-Nebi, or "birthday of the Prophet" Mohammed, is held in the beginning of the month of Rabîya-el-Awwal, on the return of the pilgr= ims to Cairo. It was first instituted by Sultan Murad, the son of Selim, known to us as Amur= ath III., 1588 A.D. (996 A.H.). It is a fête of rejoicing, and from the booths, swings, and other things erected on the occasion, has rather the appearance of a fair. It continues a whole week, beginning on the 3rd and e= nding on the 11th, or the night of the 12th, of the month, the last being always = the great day; the previous night having the name of Lêlet Mobâraka= , or "Blessed Night." The ceremony of the Môlid en-Nebi usually takes

RELGION. [41]

place in an open space on the left hand o= f the road loading to Old Cairo and not far from the Hospital of Kasr-el-'Aini. All round this space are erected the great tents of the different orders of dervishes and other religious sects. High officials, such as the Khedive, t= he Minister of the Interior, the Governor of Cairo, and others, have also tent= s in the enclosures. The tents alone are worth a visit. They are of great size, = and lined inside with the beautiful app= liqué work for which tent-makers of = Cairo are so celebrated. Religious services go on all day long, accompanied by readings of the Kurân.

The night side of this môlid presen= ts the most interesting aspect to strangers. Different forms of the sikr, or religious exercise, of the dervishes go on in the touts, which are then brilliantly illuminated. Those= sikrs continue till a very late ho= ur of the night. The last night of the festival should be chosen by preference fo= r a visit. A brilliant display of fireworks then takes place, and the whole sce= ne is strange and striking in the extreme.

FESTIVALS, &c., IN RABÎ'-ET-TÂNI.

The Môlid el-Hasanên, or Birthday of "the two Hasans" (Hasan and Husên), the sons of 'Ali and Fatma, is celebrated during 15 days in t= he 4th month Rabî-et-tâni, the great day being a Tuesday towards t= he close of the month. From a religious point of view the festival is next in importance to that of the Prophet, and from the picturesque point of view i= t is one of the most interesting of all the festivals. The Khedive goes in state= to the mosque of the Hasanto, and walks to it through the Khan el-Khalîl= i, which is beautifully decorated for the occasion. The shops are closed and h= ung with Persian carpets; the roadway, generally so dusty, is carpeted, and innumerable chandeliers filled with wax candles are hung from the roof. The= re is no scene in Cairo which reminds one more forcibly of the Arabian Nights. There is generally no difficulty in getting a seat in one of the shops, but it is very important = to go in good time. Immediately after the Khedive has passed the carpets are t= aken up to prevent their being worn by the crowds which then pass through the Kh= an el-Khalîli. The people go in crowds to the great mosque of the Hasanên, in which are buried the head of Husên, and, as some sa= y, the hand of Hasan. Solemn readings of the Kurân are made, and grand sikrs are performed in their honou= r; the mosque being brilliantly illuminated, as well as the quarters in the immedi= ate neighbourhood; while the people indulge in the usual amusements of Eastern fairs.

The Môlid of the Sultan es-Sâla (Negm-ed-dîn Ayûb, d. 1249 A.D., 647 A.H.), who was considered as a great saint, is observed at the same tim= e in the vicinity of his dilapidated mosque, which is in the Sûk en-Nabasîn, or street of the copper merchants, and thus very near the mosque of the Hasanên.

FESTIVALS, &c., IN GUMAD AKHER.<= /o:p>

The Môlid er-Rifâ'i. This festival is held in the 6th month, Gumad et-tâni, in honour of the Seyyid Ahmed Rifâ'i, founder of the o= rder of Rifâ'îya dervishes, who died at Baghdad about 1165 A.D. (561 A.H.), and= of his nephew Abû-Shibâk, over whose tomb is being built the large mosque called the Rifâ'i, opposite that of Sultan Hasan. This festiva= l is one of the most remarkable that occur during the year. In

[42] RELIGION.

the desert tract between the "Tombs = of the Mamelukes" and the mausoleum of the Imâm esh-Shafî' are pitched numerous tents of the Rifâ'i order and its subdivisions. Dervishes of the order collect from all parts of Egypt, and the strangest types of feature and dress may be seen in the S.E. quarte= rs of Cairo. Zikrs are performed at night in the tents, which are brilliantly illuminated, as at the other great môlid= s. The most conspicuous feature of the festival is the great procession which passes through a part of the city about midday on the great day, viz. a Thursday about the middle of the month. The whole scene, including much tha= t is of a barbarous character, defies description. Numerous dervishes as they pa= ss along devour live serpents; others chew glass and burning coals. Many again make a pretence of cutting and piercing themselves with swords and pointed instruments. Men, boys, and even small infants carried in arms, have their arms, cheeks, and breasts pierced with skewers, or long needles, at the extremities of which are placed limes, dates, or other fruits. On arriving = at the scene of the môlid, many of the dervishes throw themselves upon t= he ground, and hold swords across their bodies, necks, or open mouths, upon wh= ich the shêkh of the section to which they belong passes over them, tread= ing upon the swords, but at the same time leaning upon attendants, who partially support him on either side.

The Môlid es-Seyyida Nefiaa. In the mouth of Gumad Akher is also celebrated the Festival of Nefîsa, a great-granddaughter of Husên, son of Ali. The great day is a Tuesday towards the close of the month. The usual festivities take place in the immediate neighbourhood of the mosque which contains her tomb, and which (as well as the gate close to it), in one of the S.E. extremities of Cairo, is called a= fter her name.

FESTIVALS IN REGEB.

The Môlid es-Seyyida Zênab. This festival is held during 15 days in the sac= red month of Regeb; the great day (Tuesday) being about the middle of the month. Vast crowds visit her mosque (p. 120) and make the circuit of her tomb. Numerous tents are pitched near, and in some of the streets leading to, the mosque; and the usual festivities take place. The Seyyida Zênab was t= he daughter of Ali and Fatma, and granddaughter of the Prophet.

The Lêlet el-Miarâg, or Night of the Ascension of Mohammed. This anniversar= y, which commemorates the Night Journey of the Prophet (from Mecca to Jerusalem, and thence to heaven, where he conversed with God), is solemnly observed by= the Moslems of Cairo on the eve of, i.e= ., preceding, the 27th of Regeb. An interesting scene may be witnessed outside= , or sometimes within the precincts of, the Palace of Abdin (in the latter case permission must be obtained to enter). A few spacious a= nd richly-lined tents are prepared, the ground is carpeted, and the whole spot brilliantly illuminated. About 9 P.M. zikrs of Whirling (Môlawîya) and other dervish orders take place, as = well as various performances of a certain Moghrebi, or W. African sect (the Hantushîya), lately established in Egypt. Afterwards, at a late hour = of the night, a solemn recital of the Night Journey (which is alluded to in ch. xviii. of the Kurân) is intoned in a clear voice by a shêkh selected for the occasion, who is surrounded by a chorus of Ulema.

RELIGION. [43]

$$$ The Môlid of the Shêkh Abû Sâla et-Tashtûshi is also celebrated on this night. The vicinity of his tomb, which is in the N. of Cairo, near the Bab osh-Sharîya, is much frequented.

FESTIVALS, &C., IN SHAABÂN.

The Lêlet en-Nuss min Shaabân (the Night of the Half of Shaabân). The= eve of the 15th of the 8th month, Shaabân, called in some other countries= the Shab-e-Burât, or Night of= the Record, is solemnly observed. There are special prayers for the occasion. On this night the Lote tree (es-Sidr), called "the Tree of the Extremity" of Paradise, upon the loaves of which are written the names of all living persons, is shaken; and the leaf = of any person that is destined to die during the ensuing year falls to the gro= und. At the prayers of sunset the mosques are frequented by unusual numbers of t= he faithful. The minarets of many mosques are illuminated. <= /p>

Other môlids celebrated during the = month of Shaabân are that of the Im= âm esh-Shafî', on a Wednesday, generally about the middle of the mon= th, in the vicinity of his mausoleum, which is numerously attended (p. 155); and that of "Sultan" Hânefîz, hold near the mosque called after him, towards the close of the month. =

FESTIVALS, &C., IN RAMADÂN.

Ramadân<= /span>, the 9th month, and Moslem = Fast, always of 30 days, is ushered in as soon as the new moon has been seen by t= wo witnesses on the "Night of Observation" (Lêlet er-Rûya); evidence of the fact having been du= ly sworn to at the house of the Kâdi, where a mock trial requiring such evidence is instituted for the occasion. Processions are then formed, and proclamations announcing the fast are made through all the streets of Cairo. The fast is observed by all persons, of either sex, whose age and health permit of their supporting it. No Mohammedan is supposed to eat or drink anything nor to sm= oke between sunrise and sunset. (But see above, p. [35]). As the end of the day approaches, the streets are crowded with people ready to commence their meal the moment a gun fired from the Citadel announces that the sun has set, and= the fast is over for the day. The streets in the native quarters present, during this month, a livelier appearance than usual; and the cafés (in which the reciters of romances are generally engaged by the month, and extend the= ir recitals over the 30 nights) are well attended. In the open court of the ho= use of the Shêkh el-Bekri dervish sikrs are performed every night, and the best munshids (singers of odes) may be there hoard, permission to enter being readily and politely granted to Europeans. On the eves of the 13th and 14th, especially= the latter, a visit should be paid between 8 and 10 P.M. to the mosque of Moham= med Ali, in the Citadel. Here a solemn service takes place in memory of the fou= nded of the reigning dynasty, who lies buried in the mosque; and at whose tomb recitations of the Kurân are now made. The dervishes assemble and per= form sikrs. The scene presented is a= lmost identical with that which may be witnessed on the night next described.

The Lêlet el-Kadr, or "Night of Power," is observed on the eve of the 2= 7th of Ramadân. On this night the Kurân is believed to have been se= nt down to the lowest heaven, whence Gabriel delivered it in portions, during = 28 years, to the Prophet. The divine decrees for the

[44] RELIGION.

ensuing year are also believed to be issu= ed. The gates of heaven stand open, and prayers are specially efficacious. Chap= ter 97 of the Kurân is as follows: -

"Verily we sent down the Qurân in the night of El= -Qadr. And what shall make thee understand how excellent the night of Kl-Qadr is? The night of El-Qadr is better than a thousand months. Therein do the angels descend, and the spirit Gabriel also, by the permission of= their Lord, with his decrees concerni= ng every matter. It is peace until the rising of the morn." - = Sale.

Travellers should visit the mosque of Moh= ammed Ali between 8-10 P.M. It is brilliantly illuminated, and sikrs of Môlaw&ic= irc;ya ("Whirling"), Kadrî= ya ("Howling"), Ahmadî= ya, Saadîya, and other dervish orders take place. The spectacle is a strange one, and being witnessed in a mosque on so sacred a night, will suggest various reflections respecting the present position of the dervishes in Islâm. The minarets of this and = many other mosques are lighted with lamps.

An interesting and somewhat similar spect= acle may be witnessed in the mosque of the Hasanên.

FESTIVALS, &c., IN SHAWWÂL.

The Îd es-Sugheyyir, or Little Festival (in Turkish, Ramadân Beir&acir= c;m), is celebrated during the first 3 days of Shawwâl, the 10th month, and thus immediately succeeds the close of Ramadân. T= his, as well as the "Great Festival," which takes place 70 days later,= is celebrated at Cairo by amusements of various kinds. Now clothes are worn. Visits are made, especially by women, to the tombs of relatives, upon which palm branches, &c., are laid. The districts bordering on the great cemeteries outside = the Bab en-Nasr, and the Bab el-Karâfa, are the scene of much gaiety, numerous tents being pitched. The Khedive holds a reception in the morning, which is attended by all native officials of any position, by the representatives of foreign countries, and many others. The princesses also receive visits. Visits and friendly embraces are the order of the day among= st all classes.

Procession of = the Kiswa. Duri= ng the early part of the month Shawwâl, the Kiswa, or outer covering of the Kaaba at Mecca, a rich black brocade ornamented wi= th letters of gold, and manufactured annually at Cairo, is carried from the Citadel to the mosque of the Hasanên. There the separate pieces are s= ewn together, the Hezam, or band of= richly embroidered brocade, being attached to the Kiswa itself. The annual cost of= the Kiswa is £4600. The pageant, with all its accompaniments, is very sim= ilar to that of the Procession of the Mahmal, which follows. <= /p>

Procession of = the Mahmal. This ceremony takes place on or about the 23rd of Shawwâl, and announces t= he departure of the pilgrim caravan from Cairo. The Mahmal (i.e. "thing carried," from hamal) itse= lf is a square wooden frame with pyramidal top, covered with red cloth richly embroidered with gold. It represents the litter of Fatma Shegerot ed-Dûr, th= e wife of El-Melek es-Sâla, of the house of Ayûb, who caused herself t= o be proclaimed Queen of Egypt in 1250 A.D. (648 A.H.), and who performed a pilgrimage. It accompanies the pilgrims annually to <= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Mecca, and an extreme and superstitious reverence is now paid to it. At an early hour on the day a large body of tr= oops are formed up in the Rumêla, opposite the kiosque of the Khedive. A little later the Ministers, the Kâdi, the Mufti, und all the other ci= vil and religious officials assemble

RELIGION. [46]

in the kiosque, dressed in their best clo= thes. Last of all the Khedive arrives, and takes his seat in the centre of the kiosque. The procession of the Mahmal then advances, and the camel on which= is the Mahmal is halted in front of the Khedive, who makes an obeisance to it.= The procession then passes through the streets of Cairo from the open square below the Ci= tadel to the Bab on-Nasr. On this day many of the harîm screens are opened,= and the veiled occupants are permitted to gaze into the streets. The procession= is headed by detachments of infantry and cavalry. Then follow numerous fraternities of dervishes bearing banners of various colours, and some of t= he guards of the caravan. Most conspicuous in the cortège are the Mahmal, which all spectators endeavour to touch, the camels of the Emîr el-Hagg (Chief of the Pilgrims), and the Shêkh el-Gemel (Shêkh of the Camel), a burly, half-naked being,= who rolls his bare head from side to side as the procession moves on.

Those who desire to see the actual start = of the caravan will do well to ride out to the Birket el-Hagg (Lake of the Pilgrims), about 11 m. N. of Cairo, beyond Matarîya, on the ed= ge of the desert. Here the pilgrims bid farewell to those who have accompanied them so far; and soon after the midday prayers on the 27th of Shawwâl, the long train, including many features not witnessed in the Cairo processi= on - such as the takhi-rawâns,= or covered litters of female pilgrims, and the picturesque corps of mounted gu= ards - moves slowly forward on its desert route. (Nowadays, however, most of the pilgrims go from Cairo to Suez by rail.)

FESTIVALS, &c., IN ZILKADA.

The Îd el-Kebîr, or Great Festival (in Turkish, Kûrbân Beirâm), is celebrated on the 10th, 11= th, and 12th of Zilkada. It commemorates the willingness of Abraham to slay his= son Ishmael (according to the Arab legend). "Verily this was a manifest tr= ial. And we ransomed him with a noble victim" (Kurân, ch. xxxvii.). On this day the pilgrims at Mecca slay their sacrifice; and in Egypt e= very family that can afford it kills a sheep. The rich give portions to the poor= . In other respects this festival resembles ''the Little Festival" in Shawwâl, all offices being c= losed, and the holiday being kept with rejoicings by all classes. The Khedive also holds a reception as at the other festival. (Many of these festivals have b= een shorn of much of their picturesqueness of late years, but the Departure of = the Mahmal, the Dance of the Dervishes in the mosque of Mohammod Ali in Ramadân, and the holiday of Bairam are well worth seeing.)

2. The Copts.<= o:p>

The Copts are the descendants of those Egyptians who, early in our era, embraced Christianity; they form about one-fifth of the native population of the country (see p. [30]).

The tenets of the Coptic Church are those= of the sect called Jacobites, Eutychians, Monophysites, and Monothelites, pronounced heretical by the Council of Chalcedon in the year 451 A.D. Their secession from the orthodox Oriental Church was the occa= sion of bitter enmity between them and the Greeks, and they are said to have gla= dly welcomed the Arabs, and helped to drive out their hated fellow-Chris-<= /o:p>

[46] RELIGION.

tians. The orders in the Coptic Church ar= e the Patriarch (Batrak), always chos= en from among the monks of the convent of St. Anthony in the Eastern desert, Metropolitan of the Abyssinians (Mi= trân), Bishop (Uskuf), Arch-Priest (Kummûs), Priest (Kasîs), Deacon (Shemmâs), and Monk (Râhib). The convents and chu= rches are very numerous, especially in Cairo and Old Cairo (see pp. 122 and 137 ff.). The liturgy of the Coptic Church is based upon those of St. Gregory of Nazianzen, St. Basil, and that called of= St. Mark. The Holy Communion is administered in both kinds and to children. The priests always celebrate barefooted, a practice doubtless of great antiquit= y; and persons entering the doors of the Eikonastasis are expected to take off their shoes, recalling God's command to Moses at the Burning Bush. The serv= ices are very long, and often take place very early in the morning. <= /span>

The most interesting specimens of Old Cop= tic Churches [kenisa] are at Old Ca= iro. There are two or three, however, worth notice in Cairo itself. Most of them, as at Old C= airo, are within convents (dêrs= ). They are invariably extremely plain on the outside, and are constructed of = thin dark-rod bricks, probably of Roman manufacture. One, three, or more domes r= ise above their roofs, and the thickness of the walls and the narrowness of the apertures for light render them admirably adapted to the warmth of the clim= ate. Internally they are divided by wooden screens into different compartments (= khurs; pl. khuâris), in the westernmost of which is commonly found the well or tank for the water blessed at the Feast of the Epiphany. The Baptistery proper (mamûdîya) is generally= in a separate chapel in the narthex or vestibule of the church. The other compartments are for the women and for laymen, and that within the screen, which answers to the Eikonastasis of Greek churches, is reserved for the us= e of the clergy in the celebration of the Holy Eucharist. The aisles are likewise separated from the nave by openwork screens. The central and side altars, of which the latter are rarely used, stand under baldacchinos supported upon ancient marble pillars, and behind each is almost invariably a chancel (hêkal) and apse with semicir= cular stone seats, and a central throne, anciently, but not at the present time, = used by the bishop according to primitive Christian practice. The walls of the a= pses are decorated with mosaics or painted, and paintings cover the ceilings. The altars are themselves square, and under each is a cavity at the back. They = are generally made of stone, and on the top there is a central groove, in which= is placed the square wooden receptacle for the Sacred Elements. As in the Greek Church, there are no organs; the only instruments of music used being cymba= ls and triangles and small brass bulls struck with a rod held in the hand. Thu voices of the clergy as they "= praise God with the loud cymbals" have a singularly wild and impressive effect. There are no images, but a great number of paintings in the stiff Byzantine style, some of which are not wanting in a kind of rude grandeur. = The principal painting is always that of our Lord in the act of benediction.

The following are among the principal obj= ects found in those churches which merit the attention of antiquaries and those interested in ancient ecclesiastical art: - 1. Pulpits of marble, enriched = with mosaics in marble and mother-of-pearl. 2. Shrines containing the relics of saints, enclosed in wooden cases wrapped in rich silk or other <= /span>

RELIGION. [47]

stuff, and precisely resembling bolsters.= 3. Processional crosses, often with flags attached, and hand-crosses of brass = and silver. 4. Ancient silver and brass censers, of which some have small bells attached to the chains. 5. Brass candlesticks. 6. Silver boxes to hold the incense. 7. Silver chalices, patens, and spoons. 8. Coverings for copies of= the Gospel, made of silver, silver-gilt, or iron. Many of these are enriched wi= th interlacing work, crosses, and inscriptions in Coptic and Arabic in relief.= The Gospels are hermetically sealed inside these cases. 9. Ancient Arabic lamps= of glass. Only two or three of these now remain in use. 10. Square painted box= es or receptacles for the Sacred Elements at the time of celebration. 11. Ostr= ich eggs in metal casing, suspended from the roofs, like those in Mohammedan mosques. 12. Staves upon which the clergy and laity rest themselves during = long services. 13. Large carved wooden chairs used as supports for relics, or for the Gospels, and occasionally as a seat for the Patriarch. 14. Screens of inlaid wood and ivory, often of extreme beauty and intricacy of design. 15. Rich hangings for curtains and coverings of the altar. 16. Vestments, of extremely ancient design, but rarely of ancient manufacture. 17. Wall-decoration of Arabic and Persian (or Rhodian) tiles. For an excellent account of the Coptic religious ceremonies, see Butler's 'Coptic Churches.'<= /span>

The Coptic Festivals and Fasts are celebrated according to the (Coptic) solar year, which consists of 12 months of 30 days each; 5 (and on every fourth or leap year 6) intercalary days, called Na= si, being added at the close. The 1st day of the first month, Tût, coinci= des with our 10th-11th September. The following are the Coptic months, with the= ir modern and ancient names, together with the corresponding months of the Gregorian calendar: -

1. Tût (Thoth) begins 10th (before = our leap year 11th) September.

2. Baba (Phaophi) begins 10th (11th) Octo= ber.

3. Hatûr (Athyr) begins 9th (10th) November.

4. Kyâhk (Khoiak) begins 9th (10th) December.

5. Tûba (Tybi) begins 8th (9th) January.

6. Amahîr (Mekhir) begins 7th (8th) February.

7. Barmahât (Phamenoth) begins 9th March.

8. Burmûda (Pharmouthi) begins 8th = April.

9. Bashans (Pakhons) begins 8th May.

10. Baûna (Payni) begins 7th June. =

11. Abîb (Epiphi) begins 7th July. =

12. Misra (Mesore) begins 6th August.

Nasi begins 5th to 9th (in Coptic leap ye= ar 10th) September

The Copts date from the "era of martyrs" (the 2nd year of Diocletian, 284 A.D.); and their leap-year immediately precedes our own. Thus the 1st Tût of the Coptic year 1604 coincided with the Gregorian 11th September, 1887. In the years correspondi= ng to the Gregorian leap-years, and the two years following, the 1st day of Tût is the 10th instead of the 11th September. The Coptic calendar is used in Egypt in all m= atters relating to the rise of the Nile. It is = the calendar of the ancient Egyptians, unchanged.

The following are the principal Festivals: -

The Îd el-Milâd (Festival of the Nativity). The Coptic Christmas 29th Kyâhk) is celebrated with rejoicings. Serv= ices are hold, as also during the night preceding, in the churches. New clothes = are worn, and amusements provided for children, as in the Moslem festivals.

[48] RELIGION.

Alms are distributed to the poor, and vis= its are made to the tombs of relatives.

The Îd el-Ghitâs (Festival of the Immersion or Baptism) commemorates the baptism of Christ, and is celebrated on the 11th of Tûba (18th or 19th January). The eve of this festival, called the Lêlet el-Ghitâs, was formerly observed with great festivities; the banks of the Nile being crowded, and tents erected. The Copts, having poured holy water into the Nile, plunge into the stream. At present this, like= many other customs, is but little observed at Cairo. But a visit should be made to one of the Coptic churches, either in Cairo or in Old Ca= iro, where the custom is still kept up, young men or boys plunging into a reserv= oir, if one exists in the church, and the priest washing the feet of the congregation.

The Îd el-Bishâra (F. of the Annunciation) is observed on the 29th of Barmahât (6th of April).

The Îd esh-Shânîn (F. of the Palm Branches). Palm Sunday, the next before Easter, is a great day of rejoicin= g. Travellers should visit the Coptic Cathedral in the quarter N. of the Esbekîya about 9 A.M. Here an interesting scene presents itself during and after the morning service. The Copts cut the long loaves of the palm branches into strips, and form them into various cleverly-devised patterns, crosses, stars, &c. Many of them enclose the bread, or small round cake= s, of the Eucharist in baskets of loaves thus interwoven.

The Îd el-Kiâma (F. of the Resurrection) or Easter, which is also called= the Îd el-Kebîr, or Gr= eat Festival, is, as the latter name implies, the chief occasion of festivity a= mong the Copts. Prayers are recited in the churches on the eve of the festival. = The day is observed with the usual rejoicings. Alms are given, new clothes worn, &c.

The Îd es-Suôd (F. of the Ascension) is also observed with prayer and rejoicing, as is

The Îd el-Ansara or Whitsunday. <= o:p>

There are several minor Îds, such as = the Îd es-Salîb (F. of the Cross), once a great festival, but now scarcely observed, on the 17th of Tût (26th or 27th September); the Khamis el-Ahd (Maundy Thursday); and the Îd er-Rosûl (F. of the Prophets), on the 5th of Abîb (11th Jul= y).

The Copts observe numerous Fasts. Their Lent or Great Fast (Sôm el-Kebîr) was formerly of 40, and is now 55 day= s, broken only by the festivals that occur during that period, and ending on Easter eve.

Their other fasts are the Sôm el-Milâd (Fast of the Nativity) of 28 days, end= ing on Christmas eve; the Sôm el-Ghitâs (Fast of the Baptism), commonly called Baramûn, of one, two, or three days' duration, preceding = the Îd el-Ghitâs; the Sôm er-Rasûl (Fast of = the Apostles), which begins after the &= Icirc;d es-Suôd and ends on the 5th of Abîb, and the Sôm el-Adra (Fast of the Vir= gin), of 15 days preceding the Festival of the Assumption.

Those who fast abstain from all meat-food= , but partake of bread, vegetables and oil. Coffee is also taken. The Copts are a= lso enjoined to fast on every Wednesday and Friday, except during the Khamsin, i.e. from Easter to Pentecost.

RELIGION. [49]

3. Egyptian or National Festivals.

Those festivals, which are observed accor= ding to the Coptic or solar year, are of two kinds - (a) those held in honour of some Egyptian saint, either Moslem or Coptic, and (b) those which ref= er to the seasons and are obviously in many, oases survivals of ancient Egyptian festivals, and are joined in by persons of all creeds. The fairs which used= to accompany the Môlids are = now prohibited.

(a) Egyptian S= aints' Festivals. = The Môlid Shêkh Ahmed el-Bedâwi, the most celebrated and perhaps the most characteristic national festival in Egypt is held at Tanta three times a year, in January, April, and August, in honour of Shêkh Ahmad el-Bedâwi. A description of the accompanying fair, which is now abolished, is given in the account of Tanta (p. 35).

The Môlid Shêkh Ibrâhîm ed-Desûkî is held at Desûk (p. 31), after each of the Tanta festivals, and is followed by

The Môlid Shêkh Abû Rish at Damanhûr.

The Môlid Shêkh Embâba is annually celebrated in June, at the period = of the Lêlet en-Nukta, at the village of Embâba, on the W. bank = of the Nile, opposite Bûlâk. It is = in honour of the Shêkh Embâba, who there lies buried. Those who ha= ve not had the opportunity of witnessing one of the larger festivals in Cairo will do wel= l to pay a visit to Embâba on the Night of the Drop.

The Môlid el-Bêyûmi. This very extensive and remarkable fair and derv= ish festival used to be held annually in the early part of October. The scene of the fête was the portion of the desert bordering on the Abbasîya road, immediately N. of the Bab el-Hasanîya. It was in honour of the Seyyid Ali el-Bêyûmi, founder of the great sect of Bêy&uc= irc;mîya dervishes (a branch of the Ahmadîya), whose memory is much respected = in Egypt. All the characteristics of the Môlid en-Nobi w= ere here repeated.

The Môlid el-Afifi, This was also a remarkable festival, always celebrated immediately after that of Bêyûmi. The scene was the E. district= of the Tombs of the Circassian Mamelukes, in which is the Tomb of Afîfî, the founder of a large sect of Cairene dervishes. Here amongst the tombs were pitched innumerable tents, and country people from a= ll parts of Egypt, including many Bedouins, encamped around. The môlid lasted, as usual, 8 days; and was of the usual fest= ive and semi-religious kind.

The Môlid es-Sitt Dimiâna (F. of the Lady Dimiâna), one of the chief saints of the Coptic Church, is celebrated on the 12th of Bashans (19th May) at a conve= nt dedicated to her in a N.E. district of the Delta.

(b) Festivals = of the Seasons. Th= e Shem en-Nesîm, or "Smel= ling of the Zephyr," a general and very popular holiday, which is observed = on the Easter Monday of the Coptic Church. Egyptians of all classes resort to = the open country, or to any gardens or pleasure-grounds within easy reach, believing that if they inhale the fresh air on this day they will be preser= ved in good health during the ensuing year. Following some ancient custom, many women bruise an onion and suspend it on the outer door of their houses. All= Cairo, with its v= icinity, is filled with bright and cheery groups of women and children

e

[50] NATURAL HISTORY AND SPORT.

in gay attire. The blossoms of henna and flowers of all kinds are in great demand, and abundantly supplied. Many families organise picnics and spend the whole day in the fields and gardens. With the Shem on-No<= /span>sîm begins the period called the Khams&= icirc;n, which has given its name to the hot dry wind that is liable to blow during = this season of the year. The Mohammedans observe the Shem en-Nesîm on the first and two following days of the Spring Quarter, at the time of the Vern= al Equinox (i.e. at the Norôs es-Sultâni or Ro= yal Now Year's day, as adopted from the Persian calendar).

The Lêlet en-Nukta (Night of the Drop) was formerly on important anniversary, but= is now little observed. On the night of (i.e. preceding) the 11th of the Coptic month Baûna (June 17th), a miraculous drop (the tear of Isis) is believed to fall upon = the waters of the Nile at a moment that was = of old precisely calculated by astrologers. Many persons still spend a part of the night on the banks of the river. Formerly various superstitious beliefs wore connected with the examination, on this anniversary, of the weight and qual= ity of a clod of the Nile mud.

V. NATURAL HIS= TORY AND SPORT.

Domestic Anima= ls. The principal quadrupeds ar= e the Camel (gemel; trotting dromedar= y, hegîn, mehara), the Horse (hos= ân, pl. kheyl; mare, faras), the Donkey (hom= âr or, colloquially, dash, i.e. beast), the Mule (bughl, bughla), the Buffalo (g= amûs), the Ox (tor; cow, bakarah; calf, igl), the Sheep (kar&uc= irc;f, nâgeh, pl. ghunnum), the Goat (may= seh, anseh; kid, gidi), the Pig (khans&i= circ;r), the Dog (kelb), and the Cat (kut, kuttit, Cair. 'ut). And among birds the principal are the Tu= rkey (farkha or dîk rûmi, d= indi), the Goose (wizz), the Chicken (= hen, farkha; cock, dîk), and the Pigeon (hamâm). Of these it is curious to remark that neither the camel, the buffalo, nor chickens are found among the old sculptures, though one or two pieces of evidence seem to show that the, camel was really known from the earliest ti= mes; the horse was probably introduced from Asia by the Shepherd Kings. The camel and the ass are the most characteristic animals of Egypt, and they may certainly= be said to bear the burden and heat of the day in the way of work. The heavy baggage camel is the one most commonly seen. At Cairo= he is a magnificent beast of enormous strength, almost able to carry an automobile, but in Upper Egypt he is usu= ally thin and comparatively weak. The camels given to tourists to ride are usual= ly bad baggage camels, which would not be mounted by a native used to the prop= er riding-dromedary; the inexpert tourist is, however, strongly advised not to= try the experiment of riding the latter. The ass is of many kinds, from the magnificent animal of 14 hands, worth from 100l. to 200l., down t= o the wretched little drudge whose miserable carcase seems only fit for the vultu= res and the jackals. Horses are comparatively not numerous, and the possession = of them is confined principally to rich people and Europeans. The old native Egyptian breed is nearly extinct, but endeavours have been made to renew the stock. The buffalo is a most useful animal, and has to a great extent taken= the place of the ox since the lost two or three outbreaks of murrain. The sakiyas or water-wheels are usually turned by buffaloes, but in Upper Egypt ordinary oxen and even camels are

NATURAL HISTORY AND SPORT. [51]

also used for his purpose. All three are = used for drawing the plough, and a buffalo and a camel may often be seen yoked together. The sheep are very prolific, lambing as a rule twice in the year;= the flesh is good. The wool varies according to the kind; the fat-tailed species are the most esteemed. Pigs are kept only by Europeans. The native, or pari= ah, dog is generally considered unclean by the natives, and a wretched miserable beast he is to look at, but he performs, with the hawks, the useful duty of= a scavenger, and when taken care of as a puppy, grows up a fine animal, but is very difficult to domesticate. There is a breed of big, rough-haired black = dogs to be found at Erment, and one or two villages near = Thebes, that are celebrated for their fierceness and courage, and make good watch-dogs. Those dogs are rather dangerous. They are the descendants of some Pyrenean sheep-dogs left at Erm= ent by the French expedition of 1798. The ordinary village dogs always bark at = and annoy a stranger, but are soon driven off by a few stones. The turkeys of <= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Upper Egypt are famed for their large size and deli= cate flavour; and the chickens, and their eggs also, are equally remarkable for their smallness.

The brooding and rearing of domestic anim= als are not carried on at the present day to the extent that they appear to have been by the ancient Egyptians. To judge from the sculptured and written records, they devoted almost as much attention to pastoral as to agricultur= al pursuits, and though the herdsmen and shepherds appear to have been held in= disrepute, no such feeling extended to those who owned and bred flocks and herds. Nor = did the old Egyptians confine themselves to the rearing of the animals already mentioned, but devoted their attention as well to the breeding and herding = of the gazelle, the oryx, the ibex, and others of the antelope tribe, and also= to the geese and wild fowl of the Nile.

Wild Animals.<= /span> - There are but few wild an= imals in Egypt. Among the principal may be named: -

The Wild Boar (halûf), to be met with in the Delta, and on the shores of= the Birkes el-Kurûn in the Fayyûm. The Hyaena (dhabâ), found on moonlight nights in the outskirts of the desert, and among extensive ruins. The Gazelle (ghasâl), often to be met with in parts where the desert approaches the Nile; but great patience = and watching are required to get within shot. The Antelope (bakkar el-wahsh) is said to exist in the region of the Natron Lakes and the Oases. The Moufflon or Maned Sheep (kehsh el-gebel) is also said to be found in the same parts. The Ibex or "Wild Goat" (beden) frequents the mountains between the Nile and the Red Sea, and also those of= the Sinaitic = Peninsula, but is very shy and dif= ficult of approach. The Fox (abû husên) may often be put out of a patch of standing corn. The Jack= al (tâleb, shekel) haunts quarries, cliffs, and rubbish heaps. The Wolf, o= r, rather, Canis lupasater (dîb), is rare. A species of = Lynx or Wild Cat (tifal) is sometimes found in marshy places in the Delta. The curious little Fennec Fox (fenek) lives in burrows in the des= ert sand. The Ichneumon (nims) is f= ound in gardens, and often tame. The Desert Hare (arneb) is found in great numbers in some places in the Fayyûm, and now and then in the desert up the = Nile. The Coney (webur jutal), the Do= rmouse (fâr), and the Jerboa occ= ur in the Sinaitic Desert. Bats (watwat, plur. wataw&ici= rc;t) are very common, and are found in large numbers among the ruins and in tomb= s.

e 2

[52] NATURAL HISTORY AND SPORT.

$$$ All the above belong to Egypt p= roper. Of course the number might be very largely increased if those to be found in the regions bordering on the White and Blue Nile, the Sudan, &c., were included= .

Crocodiles (timsâh) are never seen north of the First Cataract. In Nubia they are occasionally m= et with. It is by no means easy to get a shot at them, as they are very shy, a= nd slip into the water on the slightest alarm. Of course anyone devoting two or three days to waiting in a hole in the sand, near where they are in the hab= it of coming up, will be pretty certain to get a shot at one, but he must hit = the eye or the side of the neck, to have much chance of killing. They are exceedingly tenacious of life, and, even when mortally wounded, generally manage to slip into the water. There is a kind of Lizard, the Monitor (waran), sometimes found close to t= he river-side; the traveller will probably have stuffed ones offered him as "young crocodiles."

Birds.<= /b> - Besides being the home of= a largo number of species, the Nile valley is on= e of the greatest bird-thoroughfares in the world, vast numbers passing down it = to colder climates in spring and returning in the autumn. Some 350 species of birds are already known in Egypt and Nubia.

LAND BIRDS. - Amongst these, birds of pre= y hold a prominent place. There are many kinds of Eagles, of which the Spotted Eag= le (Aquila naevia) and the Osprey (Pandion haliaëtus) are amongst those most frequently seen on the Nile S. of Cairo; whilst the Golden (A. fulva) and the Imperial (A. imperialis) occur in the Delta.= The commonest Vulture is the black and white Egyptian species (Neophron percnopterus, Arab, rakhama), but its larger congeners, the Griffon (Gyps fulvus) and the Black Vulture (= Vultur monachus), are frequently met with. Of the Kites, which are very numero= us, there are at least two kinds - the Parasitic (Milvus aegyptius, Arab, hedâya), easily distinguished by its yellow beak, and the Black Kite (M. migrans). The kite acts as scav= enger in the towns, and his peculiar note, which the Japanese name for him, Pi-yoroyoro, admirably imitates, m= ay constantly he heard from the minaret-tops of Cairo. Falcons and Hawks are exceedingly plentiful and of many kinds. Amongst them may be mentioned the Lanner (Falco lannarius), Peregrine (F. peregrinus), Merlin (F. aesalon), and Kestrel (F. tinnunculus); this last the com= monest hawk in Egypt. The Hobby (F. surbuteo) is some= times met with at the cliffs of Abu Fêda and elsewhere. The large falcon (A= rab. saker) which the Arabs train to= hunt the Gazelle, is somewhat rare. The Long-legged Buzzard (Buteo ferox) is plentifully distributed throughout Egypt and = Nubia. Of Owls there are seve= ral species, of which the small Carine meridionalis and the Barn Owl (= Aluco flammea) are the most abundant, being often soon in the ruined temples = as well as amongst rocks or thick-foliaged trees. The Egyptian Eagle Owl (Bubo ascalaphus, Arab. bûm) is common at Thebes. The Long-eared Owl (Asio otus) is not so frequently met with.

Many kinds of Plover are found in Egypt; = of these the most plentiful is the Spurwing (Hoplopterus spinosus, Arab. zikzak), su= pposed to be the "trochilus" mentioned by Herodotus, as devouring the parasites which cover the inside of the crocodile's mouth (Herod. Bk. ii. c. 68). The Black-headed Plover (Pluvianus aegyptius) is a bird of beautiful plumage constantly to be seen on the banks of the river,

NATURAL HISTORY AND SPORT. [68]

especially in Uppe= r Egypt. The Golden Plover (Charadrius pluvi= alis) and the White-tailed Plover (Chettu= sia Villotaei) are met with chiefly in the Delta. The Hoopoe (Arab. hudhud, pl. hadâhid), with its fine crest and strongly-marked plumage= , is to be seen in every village - quite fearless of man. A small Wagtail is everywhere seen walking about on the river verge; from this habit it takes = its Arable name of abu faraikh, "Father of Promenading." The ordinary house-sparrow is as common = as in England. Amongst Kingfishers the most abundant is the black and white species (Ceryle rudis), which may be consta= ntly soon hovering over the water or darting down to seize its prey. The common Kingfisher (Alcedo ispida) and = the smaller variety (A. bengalensis= ) are to be met with in the Delta, and occasionally higher up the Nile.

In the early spring many species of brightly-plumaged birds move northwards into Nubia and Egypt. Amongst those may be mentioned the Sunbird (Nectarina metallca), Rollor (Coracias gar= rula), Golden Oriole (Oriolus galbula)= , and the blue-cheeked Bee-eater (Merops aegyptius). A smaller species of Bee-eater (Merops viridis) remains in Egypt throughout the year, an= d is plentiful, but during the winter is seldom found N. of Kulûsna. =

The principal land-birds for the Sportsman are Sand Grouse, Pigeons, Quail, and Snipe. Sand Qrouso (Pter= ocles exustus or guttatus, Arab. = kata) are often to be found in lar= ge numbers near the edge of the desert, and in barren sandy tracts covered wit= h halfa grass; they may sometimes be= seen soon after sunrise and just before sunset coming in flocks to the river to drink. Hey's Partridge (Arab, h&aci= rc;gel) and the Red-legged Partridge are found in the desert E. of the Nile and in = the Sinaitic Peninsula. Pigeons (hamâm) should never be shot at in a village, and care sho= uld always be taken not to shoot tame ones anywhere; they may easily be distinguished from the quasi-wild ones which are kept in the pigeon-towers = for the sake of the manure they afford, and which the natives offer no objectio= n to the shooting of in moderation away = from the village. Quails (Coturnix communis, Arab. summân) are very abundant; they reach Egypt on their way north in the winter, and the traveller will probably first meet with them in any numbers near Kom Ombo in January or February; they then go gradually down the river, and reach the neighbourhood of Cairo about the middle of March. They afford most capital sport, and are first-rate eating, as soon as they have settled down a bit a= nd had time to got fat on the ripe corn. Al tomato patches of corn and green stuff, such as bersîm, cl= over, hummus, a kind of vetch, melâneh, chick-pea, and ads, lentils, are their favourite resort. Snipe are rarely met with above Cairo, but there = are places in the Delta where they are very numerous in the winter. Atfîh= is an especially good place, and there are some capital marshes near Benha; but the traveller will have some difficulty in finding out the best snipe prese= rves unless ho happens to know some resident in the country well up in these matters. The painted snipe is often found in the Delta. <= /p>

AQUATIC BIRDS. - These are very numerous = and varied in kind. Three species of Pelican are known. The large Dalmatian Pel= ican (P. crispus), which measures 6 = ft. from the tip of the beak to the tail, is perhaps the kind most frequently m= et with. These may be soon, like ships riding at anchor, amongst the smaller birds. They are plentiful

[54] NATURAL HISTORY AND SPORT.

near Kulûsna, in the Favyûm, = and especially in the brackish water lakes of <= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Egypt. Storks, Cranes, Herons, Spoonbills and other waders are to be soon in great numbers during the wint= er months. The Sacred Ibis (I. aethiop= ica) is common in the Sudan= and is said to breed at Wâdi Halfa, but is now never found in Egypt. The white bird, by some miscalled the Ibis, and by others the Paddy bird, so commonly seen in the fields of Lower Egypt, and the constant friend and companion of the buffalo, is the Buff-backed He= ron (Ardcolata russata). The Glossy= Ibis (I. falcinellus) is occasionally foun= d. The Flamingo (Phaenicopterus antiquorum, Arab. gemel el-bahr, "river camel," an appropriate name, or= basharûs) is abundant on the= lakes of Lower Egypt, but is seldom seen on the Nile itself. In the Sudan= occurs the Whale-headed Crane (Balo= eniceps rex), called Abu Markub, "Father of a Shoe," from the shape of his head. The curious Scissor-Beak (Rhynchops flavirostri= s) is often seen in the summer. Vast numbers of geese are to be seen in the winter, the most common being the White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons). "When on the wing they fly in a wedge-sh= aped flock, and frequently utter a loud harsh cry, which may be heard at a considerable distance. They arc generally on the move just before sunrise a= nd sunset; and as they are very regular, taking the same line and feeding at t= he same spot each day, they may most readily be obtained by lying in wait for them. If once fired at, the flock generally loaves the neighbourhood altogether." - Captain Shelley= .

The handsome Egyptian Goose (Chenalopex aegyptiacus), though ev= enly distributed throughout Egypt and Nubia, is by no means so common as the species last mentioned. It is a very wary b= ird, and hard to approach. It seems to have been domesticated from the earliest times; one of the oldest pictures in the world, found in a tomb of the III. Dynasty, representing some of these geese. Of Wild Duck and Teal there are = some eight or ten varieties, some very common, and others, such as the Ruddy She= ldrake, the Pintail, the Garganey, &c., more rarely found. There is very good duck-shooting on Lake Menzala, but the bi= rds are sometimes difficult to approach.

During the months of November, December, January, and February immense numbers of birds are to be seen on the sandba= nks of the river, and in some small lakes and canals inland; but, except under certain favourable circumstances, it is very difficult to get within shot of them. To do so with any chance of success requires a small boat, in which t= o sail up to or float down upon them. The larger birds offer a very good mark for a light rifle. After February the river sandbanks become comparatively desert= ed, but rare birds are often met with In the spring and summer. The best distri= cts both for number and variety of birds are the Fayyûm, the Delta (especially near Damiutta), and that part of the Nil= e which lies between Minia and Esna.

Reptiles. - The Crocodile, of which t= here are several varieties, and the Monitor, have been already spoken of. There are = several kinds of Lizards. The Chameleon (he= rbâya) is very common in Nu= bia. The Nile Turtle (Trionyx niloticus<= /i>) is to be found among the rocks in the First Cataract. Frogs are numerous. A= mong the Snakes (tâbân) = are the Horned Viper (Cerastes, Ara= b. mokârena), the Asp of antiqu= ity, the Hooded Cobra (Arab. haja, nâsher), and the Echis, all = of which are venomous, besides other kinds which are harmless. They are genera= lly found in

NATURAL HISTORY AND SPORT. [66]

ruins and near the edge of the desert, bu= t in winter no apprehension need be felt with regard to them.

Insects. - The famous Scarabaeus (kunfus, gorân) claims the first mention, though which of the doze= n or more varieties of beetles to be found in Egypt is the representative o= f the old Ateuchus sacer or AEgyptiorum must be considered dou= btful. Grasshoppers are common, and the Looust (gerâd) sometimes commits serious ravages. Butterflies are rare,but Moths and Ephemeridae are numerous. Scorpions (akrâb) are not often found, except in summer, but Spiders, some of large size and poisonous, are common. Every visitor to Egypt will have cause to lame= nt the numbers and pertinacity of the Fly (dibban), the Gnat (namûs), the Mos= quito, and the Flea (barghût). A= largo black Ichneumon-fly and a formidable-looking but really inoffensive Hornet = will often be seen.

Fish. - The fish of the Nile are very numerous, but there is not one worth eating; they are all soft and woolly, and have a strong flavour of mud. Among the most numerous and the m= ost commonly used for food are the Bay&= acirc;d, a large fish, sometimes reaching 3 1/2 ft. in length; the Shilba, with a sharp spinous fin; the Shâl (Synodontis = Schal), of Which there are several varieties, called also Kurkar, from a sort of grunting sound which it is supposed to e= mit, with a very long dorsal fin; and the Karmût, also a very long, large fish. All these are Siluridae, fish without scales. Among the scaly fish are several members of the Perch and Carp tribe. The hût and fa'akh are often of large size. One of the most curious fish is= the Polypterus (bishîr), a lo= ng fish covered with thick bony scales, and having no less than 16 to 18 long dorsal fins; it is not common, and is generally only caught when the Nile is low. Other curious fish Are the Oxyrhynchus= (gamûr), with its long snout = ending in a very small mouth; and the Tetrodon, or Ball Fish (fâkaka), found both in the Nile and the Red Sea, and often offered for sale stuffed. A report on the Fish = of Egypt has lately been prepared for the Government by Mr. Loat. <= /span>

Hints on Shoot= ing. - Some information on this = point has been already given in speaking of the wild animals and birds, and information with regard to the strict Game-laws of the Sudan will be found on pp. 54= 2 and 578. Guns and rifles should be brought from England; but they may be purchased or hired at Alexandria and Cairo. There is sometimes a difficulty in getting them through the custom-house, b= ut permission must be obtained from the War Office, Cairo, for bringing them into the count= ry. Cartridges are a Government monopoly, though they too, both pin and central fire, can be bought at Alexandria and Cairo. If it is i= ntended to go in for snipe and quail shooting, a large number of cartridges will be required. A few wire cartridges with No. 1 shot will be found very effective for the larger birds, as well as for duck at long ranges. Shot can be bough= t at Alexandria, Cairo, Port Saîd, Suez, &c., and at towns like Asy&uc= irc;t and Kena up the river. Powder is a great source of difficulty, as the Egypt= ian Government forbids its importation and sale; but it can be obtained from the various Government Salt Stores, and at certain shops which are supplied by Government. A heavy big-game rifle is useless during the ordinary voyage in= Egypt. = A common rifle with an explosive bullet is quite enough for a crocodile. =

[56] PRODUCTS.

$$$ No really good wild-fowl shooting can= be had without a small boat. The native feluka, or small boat attached to the dahabîya, is of no use whatever; it dra= ws a great deal too much water, is clumsy to manage, and requires two men to row= it. A light English pair-oar gig or a dingy is the best thing; either of these = will float in the shallows, and at the same time weather the extremely rough wat= er which is often experienced on the Nile w= hen the wind is high and the current strong. It should be furnished with a lug-sail, and spare oars and sculls should be taken, as they cannot be satisfactorily replaced in Egypt.

The traveller in Egypt is accustomed to go whe= re he likes in pursuit of game; ripe standing crops offer no obstacle to him, and= the proprietor will sometimes make no objection; but this licence should not be abused, and a request to keep off any ground should instantly be complied w= ith. There have been several instances lately in which Europeans have got into difficulties with the natives, owing to not knowing the language. A licence from the police to carry fire-arms is legally necessary, and is sometimes a= sked for.

'The Birds of Egypt,' by Captain Shelley,= is a valuable companion to the naturalist and the sportsman. Some useful informa= tion on this subject will also be found in Smith's 'Attractions of the Nile.'

Travellers who intend to collect skins sh= ould provide themselves with the few instruments necessary, and with arsenical s= oap and alum, before leaving England. Tow or cotton wool, plenty of which should be taken, can be procured at Alexandria or Cairo. No. 12 shot will be wanted for small birds. In sending home skins an air-ti= ght case should be used, each skin being wrapped separately in paper. Very small birds may be preserved whole in cotton soaked with carbolic acid.

VI. PRODUCTS.<= o:p>

1. Plants and Vegetation.

The Egyptian Flora consists of about 1300 species, of which indigenous plants constitute the largest proportion, few countries having so small a number of introduced plants as Egypt. The desert species alone, all of which are indigenous, number nearly 250. Almost all the ordinary productions of the present day appear to have been known to and cultivated by the ancient Egyptians. The following notes on the Flora of Alexandria and its neighbourhood may be found interesting: -<= /o:p>

Flora of Alexandria. - Taking a range of 20 m. E= . and W. of Alexandria, including = Lake Mareotis and the pa= rallel of its southern limit, there is a fertile field of exploration for the botanist, containing some 800 phanerogamous plants, or considerably more th= an one-half the total Flora of Egypt, as far as the First Cataract. It includes also, in abundance, the only fern found in Egypt, viz. the common maiden= -hair (Adiantum capillus-Venerus, L.) Nearly all the plants will be found described (in Latin) in Boissier's 'Flo= ra Orientalis,' in five vols. with supplement, but no special descriptive Flor= a of Egypt has yet been published. Professors P. Ascherson and G. Schweinfurth o= f Berlin, however,= have this work in hand, and have already published a catalogue (1887), with supplement of later date.

Although flowering plants interesting to = the botanist may be found at all seasons of the year within the above limits, a= round Alexandria the

PRODUCTS. [67]

flowering season par excellence may be said to begin at the end of December or t= he beginning of January, after the autumn and winter rains; and the precocity = and abundance of flowers depends in a great measure on whether the rains have b= egun early (beginning of November) and on the amount which has fallen. The avera= ge annual rainfall at Alexandria<= /st1:place> is from 11 to 12 in.

There are few flowers to be found in Janu= ary; but between Alexandria and Crab's Tower (20 m. W.), may be found Narcissus tasseta and Anemone coronaria; the latter, alw= ays of the pale blue or white varieties, is a wood of cultivation in Bedouin barley-fields, irrigated only by rain. Two or three species of Bellevalia may also be found in th= e same situations. At the end of January the fragrant stock (Matthiola acaulis) begins to cover the waysides at Mex, and sce= nt the air at sunset. Soon afterwards the tiny crucifer (Malcolmia pygmaea), with purple flowers and radiating foliage, covers the desert, followed by the equally small brilliant yellow peaflower= (Trigonella maritima) and the pretty desert rattle with butterfly-shaped yellow flowers with purple eye (Hypecoum aegyptiacum); the beautif= ul dyer's alkanet, like a large forget-me-not, but of every shade from sky-blu= e to rose-colour and pale yellow (Alkanne tinctoria); the blue salvia (Sa= lvia lanigera) and the parti-coloured dwarf toad-flax (Linaria haelava); the desert rest-harrow, a shrubby plant with conspicuous yellow flowers (Onomis vaginalis); the desert catch-fly (Silene succulenta) with white or pale pink flowers. The ice-plant, so well kno= wn in English gardens (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum), with large glistening leaves of a purple line when young, and starry white flowers, gives quite a character to the Ramleh desert in e= arly spring, with its smaller, cylindrical-leaved congener (M. nodiflorum), the only two species of this genus found in Egy= pt. By the first week in March not only is the desert brilliant with a vast num= ber of pea-flowers and composites, but what may be called the "woods of cultivation" - such as the Star of Bethlehem, grape-hyacinth (of many kinds), poppies, the crown-marigold (much resembling the English corn-marig= old, but with cut leaves), a pretty ragwort [Senecio coronopifolia), with many others - give a brilliantly gay appearance to= the vast barley-fields on either side of the road to Mariût. There, too, = may be found in plenty, even on stony ground, the Asiatic buttercup (Ranunculus asiaticus), with yellow, scarlet, or parti-coloured flowers, larger than poppies; a vast number of m= ilk vetches (Astragali); Trigonella; yellow or scarlet Adonis; the large many-flowered Iris Sisyrinchum, and its exquisite, dwarf, single-leaved varie= ty; the corn-flag (Gladiolus segetum), and a very pretty cornflower (Amber= boa crupinoides), of sky-blue colour; a frequent shrub, too, is the handsome Jerusalem sage (Phlomis floccosa), with large bright yellow flowers. The above may suffice to give an idea of = some of the most conspicuous features of the Alexandrian flora; but many of the = most beautiful desert flowers are scarcely noticed by the casual visitor, and it= is not until he seats himself on the sand, under the shade of an umbrageous pa= lm, say, in the desert between Alexandria and Abukîr, that he begins to realise how many exquisite little plants have escaped his notice during his donkey ride, and now lie around him, modestly awaiting their turn for admiration. A not uncommon desert shrub, near what is called the Mandara oa= sis, 2 or 3 m. from Ramleh, is interesting as being mentioned in Holy Scripture. This is the Roetama roetain - a white-flowered broom, which when not, as is too

[58] PRODUCTS.

frequently the case, devoured by goats, g= rows to the height of many feet. Many British plants and numerous South European ones are to be found in the swampy ground at Gabâri, near the shore of Lake Mareotis. <= /p>

Among the principal Crops are: - Wheat (kam= h), barley (shayîr), maize (dura shâmi, i.e. Syrian), the ordinary holchus sorghum in two or three varieties (dura beledi, dura seyfeh), millet (dukhn), rice (ruzz, grown only in the Delta, and certainly not known to the ancients), sugar-cane (kasab, es-sukhar), beans (fûl), lentils (ad= s), vetches or chickpeas (hummus), = lupins (termus), peas (bisilla), a kind of French bean (lâbia)f haricot bean (lablâb), onion (bassal), leek (korrât), garlic (tôm), the Hibiscus esculentu= s (bâmia], mallows (khobbêza), lettuces (khuss), cabbage (kurumb), egg-plant (bed= ingân), cress (rishad), radishes (figl, a peculiar kind), cucumbers = of various kinds (abdalawi, aggûr), watermelons (batî'kh), carrots (gazar); turnips (lift), clover (bers&ici= rc;m), the Trigonella foenum Graecum (helb= a), the Lathyrus sativus, a kind of flat pea (gilbân), lucerne (bersîm hedjâsi= ), cotton (koton), hemp (tîl), Indian hemp (hashish), flax (kettân), saffron (kortum), sesame (simsim), indigo (nila), the Lawsonia spinosa et ine= rmis (henna), madder (fûah), poppies (a= bû-nûm, "father of sleep"), castor-oil plant (khirwa), rape (selg&aci= rc;m), mustard (khardal, mostarda), cummin (kammin), coriander (kus= bera).

Besides the vegetables included in the ab= ove list, there are others grown in small quantities in gardens specially for t= he use of European residents.

The rose (ward), violet (benefsig), jasmine (yasmîn), and oleander are the principal flowers, though many other kinds, specially the bougainvillia and hibiscus, are now to be found in gardens. The lotus (beshnîn) is found in the Delta during the inundation in p= onds which are dry at other times, but never in the Nile<= /st1:place> itself; it is a water-lily of two varieties, white and blue-tinged. The pap= yrus is no longer a native of Egypt proper, being now only found in the Sudan, and, in Europe, in the Auapus, near Syracuse; there are, however, other Cyperi still growing in the Delta. A very good pa= per is now made from a wild grass (half= a) that grows in sandy uncultivated spots.

The principal Trees of Egypt are: - The date-palm (nakhl), [dates (balah], oranges (bortugân), lemon= (limûn), fig (tîn), sycomore fig (gimmêiz, the fruit small and insipid), prickly pear (tîn shôk), bananas (môz= ), apricot (mishmish), peach (khâkh), pomegranate (rûmmân), mullberry (tâtt), vine (enab), olive (zêi= tûn), almond (lôz), acacia or M= imosa Nilotica (sont, a thorny, small-leaved tree, with a small yellow flower), tamarisk (tarfa), carob or locust-tree (kharûb), zizyphus, or rhamnus spina Christi (nebek), dôm-palm (dûm), aca= cia, or mimosa lebbekh (lebbekh, a thick-foliaged tree, with broad pods).

Most of these trees were known to the anc= ients, but some are of comparatively recent introduction; among them the lebbekh acacia, which has proved a most valuable acquisition, on account of the ease with which it takes root and the rapidity of its growth. Nearly all the ave= nues round Cairo are planted with this tree, which con be grown from cuttings of large branches, and even from portions of the trunk, and will form a thick shady covering in four or five years.

During the reign of Ismaîl Pasha gr= eat attention was paid to the cultivation of plants and trees. The gardens of t= he Ezbekîya, and those

PRODUCTS. [59]

of the palaces of Gezîra and G&icir= c;za, were formed, and many now plants and trees introduced.

2. Agriculture= .

The wealth and prosperity of Egypt h= ave always depended on the cultivation of the soil. Agriculture has consequently been one of the principal cares of its inhabitants from the earliest times.= It was no doubt the necessity for accurately knowing the time of the rise of t= he Nile, and when to sow, reap, and carry on the other operations of husbandry, that caused the ancient Egyptians to take such tro= uble to arrive at a fixed year. Originally the year in all probability consisted= of 12 lunar months; it was then changed to 12 solar months, of 30 days each, a= nd 5 days added at the end of the last month to ensure the return of the seasons= at fixed periods. As, however, it soon became apparent that some deficiency st= ill existed, a quarter of a day was added to each year, or rather one day to ev= ery four years, as in our leap year. When, however, these changes were introduc= ed is not clear, though it is doubtful if a fixed year came into use before 27 B.C., when the calendar was finally reformed by Augustus.

The year was divided by the ancient Egypt= ians into 3 seasons of 4 months each: - the Inundation, corresponding with the months of July, August, September, and October; the = Winter, with the months of Novembe= r, December, January, and February; and the Summer, with the months of March, April, May, and June. These divisions are still retained.

The Inundation, or, as it roar be called,= the Autumn Season (ed-Demira), begins= with the rise of the Nile; and though less varied in its agricultural operations than the other seasons, owing to the land being to a great extent under wat= er, is of considerable importance, as during it the maize (dura shâmi) and millet (dura beledi) crops are sown and harvested.

The Winter Season (es-Shitâwi) i= s the most important of all, especially in Upper Egypt, the principal crops raised being wheat, barley, clover, lentils, beans, pea= s, vetches, &c. As soon as ever the inundation retires, these crops are so= wn, and the harvest takes place from four to seven months after, according to t= he nature of the crop; wheat and barley being seven months in the ground, and = the other crops four.

The Summer Season (es-Sêffi) pro= duces little of any great value in Upper Egypt, with the exception of millet, chi= efly in Nubia, and cucumbers and melons. Sugar-cane, however, is sown in March and April, though it is not cut till October for eating, and not till January and Febr= uary for making into sugar. But in the Delta this is an important time, rice, cotton, and indigo being sown in March, April, and May. These crops require rather longer to come to maturity than the winter ones, and are not harvest= ed, as a rule, till October, November, and even December. Speaking generally, t= hree crops are gathered on good land in Lower Egypt, and two crops in Upper Egypt.

The cultivable land in Upper Egypt is divided into the "rai" lands, which are naturally watered by the inundation,= and require no irrigation to ripen the crops, and the "sharâki" lands, which are too high for the inundatio= n to reach, and must consequently be artificially

[60] PRODUCTS.

irrigated. On some of the sharâki l= ands as many as three crops are sometimes raised in the course of the year. The = rai lands, as a rule, only yield one crop - that of the winter season; but in s= ome parts they also can be irrigated, and mode to yield a second or even third crop. Of late years a great impetus has been given to the cultivation of bo= th sugar-cane (kasab) and cotton (= kutûn), Tobacco (dukhân) is not cultivated; i= ts growth in Egypt being prohibited in order to increase the revenue derived f= rom the customs-duties on imported tobacco.

Irrigation has always been an importan= t factor in the system of Egyptian agriculture. Canals, dikes, and artificial lakes = were constructed and kept up with the greatest care in the old days of power and prosperity; but under the Byzantine emperors and during the supremacy of the Mamelukes they were neglected, and as a result the productiveness of the country suffered considerably. A great change for the better was effected by Mohammed Ali; Ismaîl Pasha carried on the good work, and considerably increased the resources of the country by the various irrigation works constructed during his reign, for the purpose of storing the waters of the inundation, and gradually distributing them over the land. Since the British occupation, further great improvements have been made, and others are now in progress, a sum of £1,000,000, supplied out of the guaranteed loan of 1885, having been appropriated for the Public Works Department. The great barrage works at Asyût and Aswân are also the fruit of the Brit= ish occupation; and, since the international arrangement with France, by which England has been conceded complete control of Egyptian finance, there is no doubt that the Public Works Department will soon be able to carry out furth= er improvements of the national irrigation system, which is as important to Eg= ypt as her dike and waterway system is to Holland.

The increase in the prosperity and wealth= of Egypt depends not only on the extent of canals for irrigation, but on the success of the methods adopted for storing the Nile water, which runs to wa= ste in winter and is very variable in summer, sometimes insufficient for the wa= nts of the land. Lower Egypt needs only the = water, as its canals are capable of utilising the full supply necessary to the complete development of its cultivation. Several schemes have been proposed, and some are being carried out, for storing water. The most important of th= ese, which is now completed and in full work, is the great Dam at Aswân, already mentioned. The object of this colossal engineering work, which was = planned by the Egyptian Public Works Department, under the superintendence of Sir William Garstin, Under-Secretary of State, and carried out by Messrs. John = Aird and Co., of Liverpool, in the years 1899-1903, is to dam up the waters of t= he Nile during the inundation to a height of 65 ft., and to use gradually the great body of water thus collected for the regular irrigation of the whole country N. of Aswân, unaffected by high or low Nile, during the rest = of the year. This object is now being regularly carried out each year, and gre= at benefit has already been conferred upon Egypt by the dam. Further regulation of the water-supply takes place at the subsidiary barrages of Asyût (p. 339) and Cairo= (p. 157). Another is to be built at Esna. A constant and unvarying supply of water makes it possible to irrigate high-lying sharâki lands which in time of low Nile would go uncultivated a= nd yield no revenue.

PRODUCTS. [61]

$$$ The mode of irrigation is essentially different in Upper and Lower Egypt. In t= he former, the country on each side of the river is divided into basins (hôds) varying in area from 1= 0,000 to 50,000 acres (feddâns). These basins are filled by the Nile in the time of the inundation, which is afterwards allowed to flow off, leaving a deposit of Nile mud on the surface of the land. In Lower Egypt, on the contrary, the water is distributed by an elaborate system of canals.= The direct process of irrigating the land from the river and the canals is carr= ied on in the same way as of old, with the one addition of steam pumps, which h= ave been introduced in some parts of Upper Egypt where the banks of the river a= re very high and a large quantity of water is required, as, for instance, for = the sugar-cane plantations. The most common machine in use is the shâdûf, which consists= of two posts, about 5 ft. in height and 3 ft. apart, joined at the top by a horizontal bar, across which is slung a branch of a tree, having at one end= a weight composed of mud, and at the other, suspended to it by two palm-stick= s, a bucket made of basket-work or matting, or of a hoop with woollen stuff or leather. This is worked by one man, who is able with it to throw up water t= o a height of about 8 ft. In the southern parts of Upper= Egypt, when the river is very low, four or five shâdûfs, one above another, are required to raise the water to the level of the land. There are some shâdûfs with two levers, worked, of course, by two men. Th= is method of raising water is a very laborious one. The other machine in const= ant use is the sâkiya, a large vertical wheel, sometimes as much as 10 ft. in diameter, with earthen pots attached to its circumference by cords, another small vertical wheel with c= ogs fixed to the same axis, and a large horizontal cogged wheel, which, turned = by one or two buffaloes, cows, or other animals, sets the other two wheels in motion, and raises the water in the pots. This machine is very much employe= d in the irrigation of gardens. In Nubia they are very numerous, and are often placed two or three deep. Being seldo= m or never greased, the noise made by them is considerable, varying from a dull groan to a shrill shriek, as the wood is new or old. In the Delta, where it= is only necessary to raise the water a few feet, a modification of the sâkiya is used, called a t&ac= irc;bût, which is a very light, easily moved wheel, with hollow follies instead of pots. The waterwheels= in the Fayyûm are often so contrived as to admit of being turned by the weight of the water, and thus give the impression of being worked by a runn= ing stream, as in Europe. =

The water, when raised, is distributed by dividing the land into small squares, separated from each other by ridges of earth a foot or even less in height, and by furrows. The water then flows f= rom the machine along a gutter, whence it is admitted into one furrow after another; these, owing to the softness and plasticity of the river mud, being easily opened or closed with the foot.

The fertilising properties of the Nile mud, renewed every year, answer, as a rule, al= l the purposes of manure; but the exhausting nature of some of the crops, the cultivation of which has considerably increased, such as sugar-cane and cot= ton, renders some artificial dressing necessary. The manures most usually employ= ed are pigeons' dung, these birds being kept in enormous numbers for this purp= ose, and the nitrous soil (sebakh) t= o be obtained from the mounds that cover the sites of ancient towns. The sebakh-diggers, or sebakhîn, form a large

[62] PRODUCTS.

class of the population in some parts of = Egypt, = and from them many of the antiquity-excavators are drawn.

The Agricultural Implements of the Egyptians are of a very rude and simple kind, and dif= fer very little, if at all, from those which have been in use from the earliest times. The plough (mihrât) consists of a pole, a share, and a handle, all of wood, the share being generally tipped with iron. It is drawn by one or two animals - buffalo, ox, camel, or donkey, as the case may be - attached to the pole by a yoke. Being very light, it does little more than scratch the surface of the soil. In so= me parts, especially where the sugarcane is cultivated, steam-ploughs are now used. The functions of a harrow are discharged by a machine called khonfud, ''hedgehog," a roller studded with iron spikes. All digging and weeding is done with a wooden hoe= (migrafa) or an iron hoe (fas, turya), an instrument which corresponds to both spade and pick, and is wielded with unexpected effect by the fellâhîn. Sowing is done by the hand, = the seed being placed in a basket slung from the left shoulder of the sower, who scatters it broadcast with his right hand; it is then sometimes pressed in = with a roller, or trodden in by oxen, or rubbed in with a wooden rake in the soft mud. Wheat is cut down close to the ground with a sickle, but barley and du= ra are plucked up by the roots. The threshing-floor is a level area near the harvested field, in the centre of which the sheaves are heaped; they are th= ou scattered over the surrounding space, and the threshing process is performe= d by a machine called a nôreg,= a wooden frame with three cross-bars or axletrees, to which are attached small iron wheels or thin circular plates, four each to the foremost and hindmost axle, and three to the centre one. On the framework is fixed a chair, in wh= ich sits the driver, whoso weight gives additional effect to the machine, which= is drawn by two oxen or some other animals, round and round the central heap, = the sharp wheels not only bruising out the com, but at the same time breaking up the straw. The winnowing is done, first by throwing the mixed grain and str= aw about in the wind, and then passing the grain through a sieve. <= /span>

Agricultural R= oads. The effects of the inundati= on on the roads and paths of the country have already been described (p. [27]). T= he work of maintaining the dike causeways and of forming the paths across the cultivated lands when the water has subsided is naturally entirely bound up with that of irrigation. The latter vary from year to year owing to the var= ying hardness of the mud here or there and the arrangements of the farmers. Duri= ng the period of the formation of the paths disputes often arise between would= -be wayfarers and peasants who object to a path being formed here or there; but= the paths have to exist in certain generally recognised directions, and in case= of any dispute with the fellâhîn, who sometimes seek to obstruct passage altogether, a written complaint should be addressed to the local Mamur, who will speedily issue an = order to the omdeh of the village con= cerned to see the requisite paths made without further discussion. The dike causew= ays (gisrs) are of course permanent= , as they either serve to divide the flood-areas (hôds, p. [61]) from one another, or form part of the embankment of a canal or railway. In the Delta and part of Middle Egypt a considerable impetus has been given to the making of agricultural roads. Th= is reform is due to Riaz Pasha. Until 1889 it would

GEOLOGY. [63]

have been impossible to take a cartload of agricultural produce from any one centre of population to another in Middle Egypt and the Delta. Comparatively few of the canals were adapted for boats, and the one means of transporting cotton to the railway stations or to the river was by camels, which, however well adapted for carrying burdens on the firm sand of the desert, are not suitable for the rich alluvial soil and the sloppy fields of the Nile valley. This i= s all being changed. The people have willingly accepted a tax never exceeding P.T= .6 or P.T.7 per feddân, and, with the fund thus raised, a whole network = of serviceable roads is being formed sufficiently adapted for this dry climate= .

The light railways of the Delta and the Fayyûm, and the "sugar railways" of Middle and Upper Egypt, already described (p. [10]), are prima= rily designed for the transport of agricultural produce. Their embankments, like those of the State Railway, are regularly used as causeways also.

The railway embankments are of course maintained by the companies or the State, as the case may be; the ordinary = gisrs by the local authorities, who employ gangs of labourers at regular wages when necessary for this purpose = and for that of keeping up the embankments of the irrigation-canals.

The Corvée. - Previous to 1885 the whole of the earthwork in the clearance and repairs = of canals and embankments was effected by the forced, unpaid, unfed labour of = the peasantry. In 1884 this labour amounted to 85,000 men working for 160 days.= It was said that this was quite a necessary state of things, that it would be impossible to maintain the irrigation-works otherwise, and that the Egyptian peasant, unlike that of any other country, would not work for wages, and mu= st be forced. It was estimated that to redeem this corvée and to pay for all this labour would cost £400,000 a year. Nubar Pasha, in the face of the greatest financial difficulty and opposition, managed to give an annual grant of £250,000 for this object. Riaz Pasha, at the end of 1889, found means of granting the remaining £150,000, and in 1890, for the first time perhaps in all hi= story, there was no corvée in <= st1:country-region w:st=3D"on">Egypt. = Its abolition has been one of the greatest boons conferred on Egypt s= ince the British occupation.

VII. GEOLOGY.<= o:p>

It is not in the valley of the Nile, and = the desert hills immediately beyond it, that the parts of Egypt most interestin= g to the geologist lie, but even here the vertical cliffs bare of all vegetation= and seamed by ravines afford many instructive lessons in the erosive action of = the wind and sun, in a country where rain now plays a comparatively small part = in carving out the relief of the country.

Commencing with the older deposits, there= is a very large area covered by crystalline rocks of various types, which commen= ces on the western shore of the Gulf of Suez immediately S. of Dêr Mar Bôlos, and runs southwards as a narrow belt as far as Kusêr, including the celebrated porphyry quarries of J= ebel Dukhân. Kusêr, the Wâdi Hamamât, and neighbouring valleys have been eroded in these same

[64] GEOLOGY.

crystalline rocks, whence the Egyptians f= rom the earliest times obtained their finest materials for statues, sarcophagi, &c. They continue alno S. of Kusêr, forming the range of hills of some considerable height which line the Red Sea shore, and, extending westw= ard, cover a large area of the Nubian deserc, reaching the Nile at Aswân, at Kalâbsha, and at a short distance S. of Wâdi Halfa, forming the First and Second Cataracts. West of the Nile, they do not occur except at two very small exposures, at the S. end of the Kharga Oasis, and between Dungul Wells and the village of Tomas. The red g= ranite of Aswân (Syênê), called mat by the ancient Egyptians, and extensively used by them at all periods, is t= he true syenite; the so-called "syenite" of modern mineralogists is a different granite. The black colour of the granite rocks at Aswân is = due to a deposit the true cause of which has not been ascertained. <= /span>

These crystalline rocks are overlaid by t= he Nubian sandstone, which covers an immense tract of country as far N. as abo= ut lat. 25°. This sandstone in its better varieties forms an excellent building stone, and was exclusively used for this over the area in which it occurs, while the quarries at Silsila have furnished immense quantities of stone for the builders of the temples of Thebes, and elsewhere. The sandstone country is different of aspect both to the boulder-strewn chaos at Aswân and the limestone Thebaïd, with its stately mountains. The valley hills are low and half buried in streams of golden sand, which pour down over them from the desert to the river. Here a= nd there, as at Muhamid, south of Esua, extraordinary weathered boulders, pinnacles, and rocking stones are seen.

From Esna northwards the Nile runs throug= h the valley which it has cut through the immense plateau of tertiary "nummulitic" limestone which extended from the Gulf of Suez to the Western Oases. This white limestone, easy to quarrv and work, furnished the most usual material for the Egyptian sculptors, who could obtain upon it the wonderful effects of relief-carving which we admire at Abydos or Dêr el-Bâhari. The Upper Egyptian white limestone, the "beautiful white stone of Anu,&quo= t; is, when fresh cut, as white as chalk, but, with time, takes on a gradually deepening orange hue, the colour of the cliffs themselves, resembling the golden bloom of the Pentelic marble of the Athenian temples. The hills at <= st1:City w:st=3D"on">Thebes show gener= ally at their bases a stratum of tafl, = an argillaceous shale of greenish hue, apt to disintegrate easily, and dangero= us to work; most of the tombs had, however, to be excavated in this bad rock. Above this comes limestone solid, but with a large proportion of flint nodu= les, which again are apt to cause disintegration. The result is that the upper t= hird of a Theban hill is usually a slope of disintegrated rocks and stones, tiri= ng and, at times, dangerous to climb. Deep ravines (wâdis) score the hill-plateau in all directions, bounded = by cliffs from 200 to 400 feet in height, above which rise the disintegrated rock-covered slopes to the hill-summits, some 1400 ft. above the Nile. The outlying hills, which appear so solid a w= all from the plain, are in reality peninsulas and islands of rock, worn out and down by erosion from the plateau surface; their summits are either knife-ed= ges or small tables of harder rock which has resisted disintegration. Further i= nto the desert the table-summits grow more and more continuous and the wâ= dis become fewer, till the more or less level desert plateau is reached. In fro= nt of the higher cliffs and hill-

GEOLOGY. [65]

peninsulas, and between them and the plai= n, are often low subsidiary plateaux, equally scored and seamed with small wâdis. The whole is one of the finest and most interesting example of erosion in the world. Falls of rock into the wâdis are not uncommon, especially after one of the heavy rainstorms that usually visit the Thebaïd every three years or so; larger landslips occur from time to t= ime (the traces of one, which happened a century or two ago, judging from the colour of the newly-exposed cliff-face, may be seen in the Western valley at Thebes), and such great catastrophes as that which caused the whole hill of Shêkh Abd-el-Kûrna to break away from the cliffs of Dêr el-Bâhari and slide forward in the direction of the river, have evide= ntly taken place in the course of the ages. The space of lower desert between th= e Temple of Kûrna and the hills is a dil= uvial deposit composed of debris washed down by the old streams of the Wadîyên (the valleys of the Tombs of the Kings) from the hillto= ps. It belongs to an age corresponding to the First Interglacial or Mosbach per= iod of Europe; in it are found palaeolithic implements of the types of Chelles, St. Acheul, and Le Moustier, of the same kind as those found lying on the surface of the hill plateaux above. Palaeolithic implements also occur lying on the surface of the desert plate= aux in other parts of Eg= ypt. It has been supposed that the palaeolithic people lived on the plateaux, wh= ich were then clothed with forests, the climatic conditions being different from those of to-day, and the rainfall being constant, causing the water erosion which has washed out the lateral wâdis of the = Nile valley. But, if this were so, it would be difficult to imagine that palaeolithic implements could now be found, as they are, lying in the desert around the flint factories where they were made, when all trace of the fore= sts and the earth in which they grow, and on which the palaeoliths must origina= lly have lain, has absolutely disappeared. There is, in fact, no real proof that the climatic conditions of the Nile vall= ey in the Palaeolithic age differed materially from those of to-day; the desert w= as desert then as it in now, and the palaeolithic men went up on foot to make their flint weapons. A greater frequency of heavy rainstorms would be sufficient to account for the amount of erosion which has taken place since Quaternary times, and which caused the formation of the débris-gravel beds of Kurna.

From Thebes to Cairo the quality of the limestone does not vary very widely, but higher beds come in as we go northwards in consequence of the general northerly dip of the series, while between Asyût and Cairo the Nile valley fault seems to have determined the line of the river. At Cair= o a magnificent section of those rocks is to be seen in the Mokattam quarries= to the E. of the city, and numerous fossils (chiefly "nummulites") c= an be obtained from the workmen. The Mokattam limestone is much greyer than th= at of Thebes in colour, and it does not disintegrate so easily.

N. of Cairo newer formations come in whic= h, on the S. side of the Cairo-Ismailîya-Suez Railway, and especially at Je= bel Geneffe, contain large numbers of Miocene fossils; but the greater part of = this area is occupied by a sandstone containing in some places many fossil trees, especially in the "petrified forest" E. of Mokattam and at K&ocir= c;m el-Khashab, about 10 m. W. of the Pyramids. This fossil wood occurs in a completely silicified state, and in good specimens the most minute microsco= pic structures are preserved; some parts of the desert are

f

[66] GOVERNMENT, EDUCATION, AND REVENUE. =

covered with pieces of a few ounces' weig= ht up to trunks 60 ft. long and 3 ft. in diameter.

The more recent deposits of the shelly limestone at Meks, the raised sea-beach so clearly visible at Cairo on the W. side of the Moka= ttam Hills, and on the edge of the plateau of the Pyramids of Gîza, may al= so be noticed; while about 2 m. S. of the Pyramids is a late marine deposit wh= ence the Arabs obtain the large Echinoderms (Clypeaster agyptiacus), which they offer for sale to visitors. The Quaternary débris-deposit at Kurna has been noted above.

Those who make an expedition of any lengt= h in the desert will see on the finest scale the result of wind and sand action,= and of the great variations of temperature which occur there. Among the most remarkable features of the Libyan desert= are those lines of drift sand heaped up by the wind into hills having a breadth= of from 1/2 m. to 5 or 6 m., but which extend almost uninterruptedly for three, four, and even five days' march. To the W. and S.W. of the Dakhla Oasis they cover an immense area, which is absolutely impassable in consequence. In the Eastern desert they are of very small dimensions.

The Oases have always been considered= as one of the greatest wonders of Egypt, occurring as they do in the midst of the = arid desert plateau, but being abundantly watered by numerous springs, and produ= cing luxuriant vegetation. These Oases are not walled-in depressions in the vall= ey plateau, but rather deep indentations cut back into the plateau from its southern edge. The springs yield a constant supply of fresh water, often slightly chalybeate, and usually of a temperature somewhat higher than the = mean temperature of the air, so that the pools may be seen steaming on winter mornings. There seems now to be no doubt that these springs are truly artes= ian, drawing the water-suuply from a rainfall far to the S., since, when borings= are made and the rock - a white sandstone usually, which covers the water-beari= ng strata - is broken, the water rises in the bore with considerable violence = and overflows at the surface; in fact many of the Oases springs are on the top = of low mounds, the result of drifted sand, and vegetable and animal accumulati= ons. The depth at which the water is reached varies considerably with the spot selected: in Kharga 200 to 400 ft., in Dakhla 120 to 300 ft., and in Baharîya 90 to 120 ft., are said to be the usual depths. <= /span>

The large number of salt pools and marshes which render the Oases so unhealthy at some periods of the year are caused = by the overflow of those springs, which, being allowed to flow away unregulate= d, take up salt from the cretaceous beds which form the floor of the Oases, and considerable tracts are ruined by them.

VIII. - GOVERN= MENT, EDUCATION, AND REVENUE.

1. Government<= o:p>

Egypt is nominally a Viceroyalty,= under the suzerainty of the Porte. Its relations with Turkey were regulated by the treaties of 1840 and 1811, in which latter year the government of Egypt<= /st1:country-region> was declared by a special firman to be hereditary in the family of Mohammed Ali. This concession was further extended in 1866, when by another firman t= he succession was allowed to pass from father to son, instead of, as is the

GOVERNMENT, EDUCATION, AND REVENUE. [67] =

usual Mohammedan custom, to the eldest me= mber of the family. In 1867 another firman was issued, conferring on the ruler o= f Egypt the title of Khedive, or more properly Khidewi, a Persian title, of which it is difficult to determine the exact significat= ion and value, but at any rate it marked an increase of rank and independance. = In 1879 the Sultan removed Ismaîl from the viceroyalty, and replaced him= by his eldest son Mohammed Tewfik, to whom he sent a firman, dated August 1879, confirming the privileges granted to previous Viceroys. The annual tribute = to Turkey = was fixed at £678,400. It now amounts to £685,011, which is remitted to England direct for the paymen= t of the Turkish Bondholders.

Actually, Egypt is controlled and administered by Great Britain. To all intents= and purposes it is a protected territory of the British Empire, but nominally it still remams "a province of the Ottoman Empire in the military occupat= ion of Great Britain." The British military force numbers about 3,500 men.

Since the occupation of Egypt by England,= the power of the Khedive has been greatly curtailed; and although the British Imperial Government rarely interferes in the internal government of the country, questions of international importance are referred to London throu= gh the British Consul-General, who makes a yearly report to the Secretary of S= tate for Foreign Affairs on the Finances, Administration, and Condition of Egypt= and the Sudan, which is issued as a Blue Book, and is always most interesting a= nd instructive reading. The native officials throughout are inspected, checked, and, when necessary, controlled by British advisers and inspectors.

The Khedive is assisted in the government= of the country by a Council of Ministers appointed by himself, subject to the approval of the British Imperial Government, conveyed through the Consul-Ge= neral. The Council consists of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs, Justice, Interior, War, Finance, Public Works, and Public Instruction. There are also English advisers, viz., Sir Vincent Corbett for Finance; Mr. Machell, Interior; Mr. Mellwraith, Justice; Sir Wm. Garstin, G.C.M.G., Public Works.= The British Agent and Consul-General, Sir Eldon Gorst, K.C.B., acts as adviser-in-chief to H.H. the Khedive and his Ministers, and as the intermed= iary between them and the Government of His Majesty the King. =

The Native Legislative Council, composed = of 30 members, partly elected by the Communes and partly nominated by the Governm= ent, has a consultative voice with regard to all laws promulgated and the annual budgets, though Government is not bound to accept their recommendations. Th= ese recommendations are often marked by sound good sense.

The country is divided into provinces, ea= ch under a governor, called a Mûdir, which again are subdivided into districts, called Markaz, each under its Mamûr, and every village in these districts has its chief, formerly styled Shêkh-el-Beled, but now Omdeh. Certain towns - Alexandria, Cairo, Suez, Port Saîd, Damietta, = and El-Arish - have their own system of government, independent of the province= s in which they are situated (see p. [23]); Alexandria has a Municipal Council composed of Europeans and natives, and similar Councils have been institute= d in several large towns of both Upper and Lower Egypt, as, e.g., at Helwân and Medînet el-Fayyûm. <= /o:p>

[68] GOVERNMENT, EDUCATION, AND REVENUE. =

&n= bsp; $$$ In the Department of the Interior great reform has been effected since the appointment of a Brit= ish adviser to the Ministry in October 1894. The point of departure was the practical recognition of the powers and influence of the Omdehs or Headmen = of each village, and measures are taken to ensure their good behaviour. <= /o:p>

The Mûdirs, or Governors of Provinc= es, with the Mamûrs el-Markaz, or Govornors of Districts, also come under British control, and are responsible for the maintenance of public security= .

British Inspectors visit the provinces and report upon the manner in which the Mûdirs, police, and other local officials perform their duties.

Army. - Since the English occupat= ion, the Egyptian army has been completely remodelled by Gen. Sir Evelyn Wood, V.G., G.C.B., and its condition and quality have been greatly improved under his successors, Sir Francis (now Lord) Grenfull, Major-Gen. Sir Herbert (now Lo= rd) Kitchener, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., and the present Sirdar, Major-Gen. Sir Francis Wingate, K.C.B.

It consists of over 15,000 men, including cavalry, artillery, and a camel corps 600 strong. The infkntry comprises 16 battalions, 5 of which are Sudanese. All the superior officers and a large proportion of the juniors are British, numbering about 80 in all. As in all countries except England and the United States, the army is based upon the system of universal military service; all between the ages of 19 and 23 bei= ng called up for service, but exemption can be had upon payment of £E.20= . The term of service is 6 years, after which the men are liable to serve for 5 y= ears in the police before passing into the reserve. The uniforms of the army are, generally speaking, of British cut, though the undress jacket of the office= rs, with its aiguillettes crossing from shoulder to shoulder, is rather of Ital= ian type, and the actual colours of the ordinary infantry uniform - dark blue t= unic with white facings and light blue trousers - are those of the American infantry, and are probably a relic of the old days of American control of t= he army in Ismaîl's time. The artillery uniform is indistinguishable from the British, except for the tarbûsh. The rank marks are on the British system-arm ch= evrons for non-commissioned officers, stars and crowns on the shoulder straps for commissioned officers. The universal headdress is a red tarbûsh, exce= pt in the case of black regiments, which have a khaki tarbûsh with a red number-patch at the side, and a red hackle. Khaki is worn always by these regiments, and by all branches of the army on service.

The Egyptian Police was entirely reorganised by the late Valentine Baker Pas= ha, and the superior officers are British. In 1895 the Police wore placed under= the Mûdirs, who are checked by British Inspectors. Except for the tarbûsh, the winter uniforn resembles the British in cut, but is dark green in colour. In summer a white uniform is worn. The blue and white London policeman's "duty band" is carried.

The Coastguard patrols the desert on either side of the Nile as well as the coast: its chief duty is to prevent the smuggling and illicit manufacture of tobacco. (Salt is no longer a Government monopoly.)

The Egyptian Navy, being unnecessary since the British occupation, has cease= d to exist; the sailors wearing the British naval uniform, but with a red tarbûsh, seen at the ports, are Suez canal or harbour-service men. A few small customs-cruisers are maintained, and th= e

GOVERNMENT, EDUCATION, AND REVENUE. [69] =

Khedive has a yacht, the Mahrussa. Egyptian ships fought at Navarino in 1827, and in the= Black Sea against the Russians in the Crimean War. =

The Administration of Justice in the mixed tribunals has been already referred to (p. [7]). There are two courts: one of First Instance sitting at Alexandria, Cairo, and Mansûra, and one of Appea= l at Alexandria, whose decisions are final. The judges number 32 Europeans of 12 different nationalities, 3 Americans, recommended by their respective Governments and appointed by the Khedive, and 23 natives.

Casers are decided by a bench of 3 Europe= ans with 2 native judges in the Court of First Instance, and 5 Europeans with 3 natives in the Court of Appeal. Civil and commercial cases between natives = and foreigners, and between foreigners of different nationalties, are tried by these courts, and the Khedive and Government are amenable to their jurisdic= tion without appeal. The system of law administered is based on the Code Napoléon. The courts having been instituted by international treaty,= the assent of fill the European Powers and of the United States, as well as of Egypt, is required every five= years for their continuance.

Civil and criminal cases in which natives= are concerned are tried by the Native Tribunals, which are established througho= ut the entire country and are doing good work, since the adoption of Sir John Scott's scheme of judicial reform in 1891. Excepting 4 Englishmen, who sit = in the Cairo Appeal Court, and 6 other Europeans, the judges are all natives. The language used is Ara= bic, and the Code is based to some extent upon the Code Napoléon.

There is also the Kadi's Court (Mehkema Shari'a), which deals with questions of inheritance, marriage, charitable or religious bequests, &= c., in accordance with the precepts of the Kurân.

2. Education.<= o:p>

Education has made considerable progr= ess in Egypt d= uring the last few years, and is continually improving as regards both the number= of schools and the methods of teaching. Mohammed Ali founded schools, but they were neglected by his immediate successors. Under Ismaîl Pasha, howev= er, a new system of public education was adopted and partly applied. This system has been notably improved by the creation of training colleges for teachers, several of which are now working with the view of giving a special training= to teachers preparing themselves for the Arabic, English, and French classes respectively. In 1901 £E.173,000 was spent on schools. With this sum = nine colleges and forty schools were maintained.

The Government schools are divided into p= rimary schools, secondary schools, and colleges or higher professional schools (La= w, Medicine, Engineering, and Teaching). There is also a technical school at Bûlak. The military school is under the supervision of the War Department. The Christian, native, and foreign communities have numerous pr= ivate schools (primary and secondary). In addition to these institutions, in 1901= 87 village schools (Kuttabs) were = under Government control, with 760 teachers and 11,931 students, and there is a g= reat number of still more elementary native schools, in which only the Kurâ= ;n and reading and writing are taught. In 1892 there were

[70] GOVERNMENT, EDUCATION, AND REVENUE. =

8643 of these very elementary schools, wi= th 183,155 pupils and 11,938 teachers. To the mosque El-Azhar in Cairo is atta= ched a Mussulman University, founded nearly 1000 years ago, in which the main subjects of instruction are Mohammedan theology, Mohammedan law, and the Ar= abic language and literature. 11,763 students and 337 professors were in attenda= nce in 1892 at this renowned University and several similar establishments atta= ched to mosques in the provinces; but it is to be observed that the subjects tau= ght and methods of teaching have not changed since the Middle Ages, the "University" is therefore of no value whatever from the education= al point of view, and in reality serves merely as a rallying point of all the forces of obscurantism, ignorance, and fanaticism in the Mohammedan world. Unhappily there seems as yet no prospect of reforming it without stirring u= p a storm of religious opposition.

In Egypt, as in other Oriental countries, female education is in a very backward state. Some progress, however, has been made during the past year, owing to the untiring efforts = of Artin Yacoub Pasha. A primary school of the higher grade for girls was open= ed in Cairo in October 1895, with an Englishwoman for its head-mistress. In April 1896 the= re were already 59 day pupils.

3. Revenue.

The Revenue of Egypt= in 1901 was the largest ever collected, viz. £E.13,906,152, and the expenditure having been £E.12,700,332, there remained the surplus of £E.1,205,820. Before 1904 only a part of this surplus was at the disp= osal of Government, which, owing to restrictions imposed by the European Powers,= was not allowed to exceed a fixed sum for administrative expenditure, and the remainder was paid to the Caisse de la Dette Publique. This arrangement is = now modified by the Anglo-French Agreement of 1904. Under the new arrangement t= he whole of the land tax, except that derived from the = province of Kena, is pledged to the service of the debt. The amount of the tax is estimated at £E.4,200,000 per annum, a= nd the total Debt charge, including the administrative expenditure of the Caisse d= e la Dette, amounts to about £E.3,600,000. The annual surplus from the land tax, over and above what is necessary for the service of the debt, is paid = to the Egyptian treasury. Thus the Egyptian Government has acquired a freedom = with regard to its own expenditure which it has not known since the days of Ismaîl. Debt to the extent of £St.911,580 was paid off during t= he year, and on Dec. 31, 1904, the outstanding capital of the debt amounted to £101,275,340, £E92,358,060 being in the hands of the public.

The Caisse was created by the European Po= wers in 1876, in order to protect the interests of the bondholders. The cause wh= ich brought Egypt to the verge of bankruptcy was the general extravagance of the Khedive Ismaîl, by whom most of the public debt was contracted. Although much= of his expenditure was for useful works, including the = Suez Canal, it was accomplished by means of loans upon ruinous term= s, and his arbitrary exactions obliged many natives to abandon their lands, wh= ich they could not afford to cultivate.

Since the English occupation the amount of annual taxation has been reduced by over £E.l,900,000; arrears to the extent of £1,000,000

INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE. [71]

have been remitted; the price of salt red= uced by 40 per cent., and postal and telegraph rates reduced by 50 per cent. A l= arge mass of important remunerative public work, chiefly in connection with irrigation, has been effected, and the value of land has quadrupled. The le= ngth of State railway lines now working is over 1500 miles; extensions are in progress. In 1903 the State railways carried about 15,000,000 people and 3,000,000 tons of go= ods, as against 2,800,000 people and 1,200,000 tons of goods in 1883; in twenty years the receipts have risen from £E.1,200,000 to £E2,260,000.=

The Government monopolies of tombâk (prepared tobacco for smoking in marghileh= s) and salt yielded respectively £E.57,000 and £E.182,000 to the revenue. The salt and soda monopoly was farmed out to a company, a royalty = of P.T.340 per ton being paid to the Government. This monopoly is now (1906) abolished.

IX. INDUSTRY A= ND COMMERCE.

Industry. - The bulk of the populatio= n is, as has been already shown, engaged in agricultural pursuits. Of late the cultivation of cotton and sugar-cane and the establishment of crushing mill= s, also of refineries, have greatly extended, and are still progressing. =

The Daira Sanieh Administration owns a considerable number of sugar mills situated in Upper= Egypt, and the cane is grown on their own lands, which they lease to native tenant= s.

Cotton ginning mills in various towns and villages, and cotton presses in Alexandria, give employment to a large number of Europeans and natives.

Another recently-introduced industry is t= he manufacture of paper, which is, however, confined to one establishment at Bûlak, near Cairo. Very good kinds of paper are made there from maize, straw, and halfa grass. A Government printing office exists at Bûlak, which produces very creditable work, and there are numerous others at Cairo and Alexandria belongi= ng to both natives and Europeans. Many European newspapers, in English, French, Italian, and Greek languages, and a considerable number of native ones in Arabic, are published.

Large quantities of natron and salt are f= ound in different parts of the valley of the Nile, and their extraction from the soil gives employment to a considerable numbe= r of people.

One of the oldest industries in Egypt is artificial egg-hatching. It is principally carried on by Copts. There are s= aid to be in all more than 600 ovens, called maamal el ferâkh or farrûg= , in the country; and the production of chickens by this process is reckoned = at some ten millions.

Among other native industries may be ment= ioned the manufacture of silk and cotton stuffs, dyeing, the distillation of scen= ts and essences, pottery-making, gold and silver embroidery work, jewellery, &c. A number of articles are made out of the trunk, branches, and leave= s of the palm-tree, such as seats, bed-frames, chests, baskets, mats, brooms, and ropes.

Commerce. - The commerce of Egypt i= s very considerable. In 1904 the principal exports were cotton, cotton-seed, sugar, beans, wheat, Indian corn, and cigarettes. In 1904 the value of exports was £E.20,811,000, and of imports, exclusive of tobacco, £E.19,889,= 000.

[72] HISTORY.

53.6 per cent, of the exports went to Great Britain, and 39 per cent, of the imp= orts came from Great Brit= ain and her colonies. The Customs revenue, including the tobacco duties, amount= ed to £E.3,216,000. Tobacco yielded a net revenue of £E.1,420,000. Most of the tobacco comes from Turkey and Greece. Its cultivation is forbidden in Egypt for the sake of the customs-revenue from imported leaf. The weight of tobac= co re-exported in the form of cigarettes amounted to 620,500 kilogrammes.

The principal imports were cotton goods a= nd other clothing materials, coal, timber, wines and spirits, coffee, tobacco,= and machinery; total value in 1904 £E.20,559,588.

X. HISTORY.

1. Sources of = Ancient History.

The materials for a knowledge of the hist= ory and the manners and customs of the Old Egyptians, have been almost entirely derived from two sources. Their public annals are written on the walls of t= he temples, their private history on the walls of the tombs. And from temple or tomb have also come most of the objects in the different museums, which hel= p to throw much light on this subject.

The Tablet of Abydos, of which there are two copies - a mutilated one in the British Museum, found in the Temple of Ramses II. at Abydos, and a perfectly complete one, found in 1865 = on a wall of the Temple of Seti I. at that place, and still remaining ther= e - serves us an excellent guide towards the chronological arrangement of a certain nu= mber of the kings of Egyp= t. It contains the names of 76 kings, a comparison of whose names with the lis= ts of Manetho has much helped towards the work of reconstructing portions of Egyptian history.

Of the same character are the Tablet of Sakkâra, containin= g the names of 55 kings; the Hall of Ance= stors, a small chamber at Karnak, on whose walls was a tablet, now in Paris, containing the names of 60 kings; and the Papyrus of Turin, containing also what was once by far the most complete list of kings, but so mutilated that it can never be fully deciphered. <= /span>

The first who attempted to write a histor= y of Egypt was Manetho, an Egyptian priest who lived in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelp= hos, circ. 263 B.C. His history was written in Greek, and contained a list of the kings who had reigned in Egypt from the earliest times to the conquest of Alexander. The history is lost; = but the lists are preserved in the Chronology of George Synkellos, a Byzantine = monk who lived at the beginning of the 9th ctentury. He had collected them, not = from the original work, which had long been lost, but from copies made by Julius Africanus in the 3rd century, and Eusebius in the 4th. To what extent crede= nce can be given to these lists, which, supposing them originally correct, had prob= ably been altered and manipulated by the Christian writers above mentioned, is a point much disputed by modern Egyptologists. Many are now disposed to consi= der that recent discoveries have rather confirmed their title to be looked upon= us, to a certain extent, trustworthy guides.

What the classic historians have to say a= bout Egypt may be read in the 2nd book of Herodotus, the 1st book of Diodorus, the 17th book

HISTORY. [78]

of Strabo, and the treatise 'de Iside et Osiride' of Plutarch. Their accounts are, however, at the best second-hand traditions, which have served rather to confuse and falsify the history of = Egypt, and to mix up with it a number of tales and fables.

The only certain sources of Egyptian hist= ory are the monuments, which are now rapidly yielding up the wealth of their written records to the scholars of England<= /st1:country-region>, France, and Germany who have made Egyptology their special study.

2. General Ske= tch.

Egyptian history consists of a series of cycles. From the beginning until now we have a constant repetition of the s= ame class of events. The cycle commences with a native monarchy, ruling despotically but peacefully; wealth and power, perhaps attack from without,= lead to foreign wars; a strange race, encouraged by internal discord, conquers t= he country, and a long period of decadence ensues. Then comes a revival, which lasts perhaps during the reign of only one family, perhaps for three or fou= r; followed by foreign wars, conquest, decline, and subjection as before. Duri= ng these periods of misfortune the arts have been neglected, history has remai= ned unwritten, and it is often impossible even to approximate to the time which elapsed before the next revival took place.

The successive cycles of Egyptian history= were as follows: (1) The "prehistoric" period, before the establishmen= t of the monarchy. (2) The Old Kingdom, i.e. the first monarchy down to th= e end of the VI. Dynasty. (3) A revival under the later kings of the XI. Dynasty,= and under the XII., seems to have ended with the first kings of the XIII. (4) A second revival under Aahmes, about the year 1700 B.C., lasted during the re= igns of the XVIII. and two following dynasties, and was followed, about 1000 B.C= ., by a long succession of foreign invasions, culminating in the conquest by the Persians. (5) The prosperous reigns of the early Ptolemies (322-165 B.C.) brought wealth back to Egypt; but after about 150 years the power of the dynasty declined, and in 30 B.C.= Egypt b= ecame a Roman province. (6) A period of comparative prosperity returned under the R= oman emperors from Nero (54 A.D.) to Theodosius (379 A.D.), after which misgovernment reduced the country once more to insignificance. (7) The early Mohammedan conquerors brought in a flourishing state, and, in spite of cons= tant contests for power among the rulers, Egypt became once more a cent= re of the arts and sciences. This era closed with the conquest of the country by = the Turks (A.D. 1517), since which time Egypt has been a Turkish Pash= alik. Mohammed Ali, who was appointed Pasha in 1805, after the temporary occupati= on by the French, re-established the independence of Egypt to all intents and purp= oses, and his descendant Ismaîl thought he had re-established her prosperity when he made her one of the "European family" of states. But cycle (8) did not really begin till the final consummation and establishment of British control, which now assures a period of progress and well-being to <= st1:country-region w:st=3D"on">Egypt w= hich can never have been equalled in the days of the most powerful Pharaohs, and will last as long as the British power endures.

First Period: Prehistoric. - Egypt a= ppears to have been inhabited

[74] HISTORY.

during the Palaeolithic period. Large num= bers of flint implements of this age, similar to the Drift implements of Northern Europe, have been found on the desert surf= ace in the Thebaïd, in the Wâdi esh-Shêkh east of Mughugha, on the skirts of the Fayyûm, and in other places. General Pitt-Rivers has al= so noted palaeolithic flints from a gravel deposit near Kurna. The users of th= ose flints probably lived on the hill-slopes when the Ni= le valley was a morass, and gradually descended to the lower levels (see p. [6= 5]).

During the Neolithic age we find Egypt i= nhabited by a comparatively numerous population, who have loft indubitable traces of their presence in their burying-grounds at Nakâda and Tukh in the Thebaïd, Nag' ed-Dêr, opposite Gîrga, Kawâmil, Gebelên, and other places. The graves are usually more scooped-out ho= les in the desert surface near the cultivation. The bodies were buried in a cra= mped position, the knees up to the chin. With the dead were buried pottery, flint knives, and other objects. The pottery is of characteristic forms; colours black and red, red designs on buff, &c. The designs are usually of smal= l Nile boats with banners, men and women, ostriches, &c. These people bore the same relation be the ancient Egyptians that t= he ancient Britons do to us. At an unknown period Egypt seems to have been invaded by another race of proto-Semitic affinities, probably coming from Arabia, who possibly brought with them a bronze ago culture derived from that of the Sumerians of Babylonia. These people mixing with the native Egyptians, probably an autochthonous Nilotic race, constituted the Egyptian people of history, and probably laid the foundations of the ancient Egyptian state. The hieroglyph= ic writing was perhaps introduced by them, though this is doubtful. The Egypti= an sun-worship (Ra) and sky-worship (Horus) wore possibly brought in by them a= lso. The animal cults and the veneration for the dead are probably indigenous. <= o:p>

Second Period:= the Early Monarchy. - The ancient political division of Egypt into Nomes, each known = by the name of a sacred animal, was probably of indigenous origin. The higher organisation of the kingdom does not seem to have boon evolved until after = the conquest of Egypt by the intruding race from the East. Originally there were certainly two kingdoms of the North and the South, with their seats at Buto (Tell Fera'in) and Hierakonpolis (Kom el-Ahmar, opposite El-Kab) respectively. The union of these two kingdoms is traditionally assigned to a king named Mena. His name occurs at the head of the lists of kings which have been found in vurious places (Abydos, Karnak, Turin papyrus, &c.) He is believed = to have sprung from an ancient line of local monarchs seated at This or Thinis= , a town adjoining Abydos, the place of the burial of the mythical Osiris. According to tradition seven kings of the same dynasty followed him on the throne of Memphis, a city near the S. point of the Delta, which he founded. The fourth, Uenephes or Ata, is said to have been = the first to build pyramids. The II. Dynasty consisted traditionally of nine ki= ngs. The second, Ka-Kau, is said to have appointed the worship of the bull Apis = at Memphis, the bull= Mnevis at Ileliopolis, and the goat Mendes. So far tradition. As a matter of fact, Mena is probably a combination of two or three kings whose names are known = to us from contemporary monuments, found in the excavations made of late years= in the burying-places of the early kings at Abydos and Nakada.

HISTORY. [75]

The primeval monarchs Aha, Narmer, and "the Scorpion" are all three probably the originals of the legend= ary Mena, who is said to have founded Memphis. They probably warred against the North, and for the first time established = the Southern power there. Thus they unified Egypt for the first time. Nei= ther Ata nor Ka-Kau are known to us as such from the contemporary monuments, but= other kings whose names figure in legend, but wore not considered worthy of much notice otherwise, are known, such as Semti Den (Manetho's Usaphais) and Merpelm (Merbap of the lists, Man. Miebis), pos= sibly the first renowned monarch of all Egypt. One of the lists begins with him a= nd not with Mena. A king unknown to fame till the recent discoveries, but apparently a great warrior, was Khasekhem ("Power appears") who reconquered the North and changed his name to Khasekumui ("Two Powers appear"). Semerkhat left a monument in the Sinaitic peninsula, as also= did Tjeser of the III. Dynasty, in whose reign a seven years' famine took place. Send and Perabsen of the II. are mentioned on a IV. Dynasty monument, of wh= ich portions are preserved in the Ashmolean, British, and Cairo Museums. The Oxford fragment was one of the first Egyptian antiquities brought to England, having been acquired in the 17th century. With Sneferu, last king of the II= I. Dynasty, the traditions of the lists for the first time square with the tru= e history of the royal succession as disclosed by the contemporary monuments. The pyr= amid of Mêdûm is his burial-place. The tombs at Mêdûm, contemporary with his reign, have yielded some of the finest statues of the= Cairo Museum, notably those of Rahetep and his wife Neferet. The pyramid builders of Gîza were Khufu (Cheops), Khaf-Ra (Khephren), and Men-kau-Ra (Mykerin= os), of the IV. Dynasty. Khufu, the builder of the Great Pyramid, is also mentio= ned at Sinai, the Cairo Museum contains sta= tues of Khaf-Ra and Men-kau-Ra, some of which were found in the so-called granite temple, near the Sphinx, a work of the XII. Dynasty. The V. Dynasty was probably of Heliopolitan origin. At Sinai, in the Wâdi Maghâra, there are records of Sahu-Ra, the second king of the dynasty, and of severa= l of his successors, who conquered the natives and sent commissioners to look af= ter the mines of copper and malachite. Thi, whose tomb at Sakkâra is well known, lived under the later kings of the dynasty, and the last Pharaoh, Un= as, was buried in the pyramid north-west of the village of Sakk&aci= rc;ra, which was opened by Professor Maspero in 1881. The pyramids of the kings of= the VI. Dynasty, opened by Professor Maspero at the same time, are in the immed= iate vicinity; that of Teta, the first king of the dynasty, east of the pyramid = of Unas, and those of Pepi I. (Meri-Ra), Pepi II. (Nefer-ka-Ra), and Mer-u-Ra (Meht-em-saf II.), to the south of it. Monuments of this age are to be foun= d in all parts of Egypt, as= far south as Aswân, and we hear of distant expeditions being sont to expl= ore the regions of the S= udan. Una, one of the great officials of Pepi I., has described in a stela, now at Gîza, the war carried on against the Asiatics east of Egypt b= y means of negro troops levied between the two Cataracts, as well as the transport = of a granite sarcophagus and other stone for the pyramid of the king.

The end of the VI. Dynasty marks also the end of the Old Empire. It was followed by a period of decline. The authority of the Pharaohs was usurped = by a feudal aristocracy who absorbed the landed

[76] HISTORY.

property as well as the civil and military power of the country. They owned a nominal obedience to the kings of the VI= I. and following Dynasties, but in their own districts acted like independent = princes. A few names only have been preserved of the VII. and VIII. and IX. Dynastie= s, and we may gather from a fragment of the Turin papyrus that most of the reigns were short. When at length the old line of Memphite kings was destroyed by their rebellious vassals, a now dynasty, the IX., was founded by the feudal prince of Herakleopolis, the modern Ahnasyet el-Medîna. This was Kheti I. Mer-ab-Ra, the Akhthoes of Manetho, whose name has been found at the Catara= ct, and who is said in a papyrus to have carried on war with the desert-tribes = east of Egypt= . The X. Dynasty was also Herakleopolite, and some of the tombs at Asyût belong to the princes who lived under it. In one of them (that of Tef-ab) an inscription describes the victory gained by the Pharaoh over the rebellious nomes of the south, who had combined against him from Elephantinê to = Kau. In another tomb (that of Kheti II., the son of Tef-ab) we are told that the king Meri-ka-Ra, after being driven from his capital by an insurrection, was restored to it by the feudal lord of Asyût. Meanwhile the power of the princes of Thebes and Hermonthis had been steadily rising, and one of them, Mentu-hetop I., finally overthrew the Herakleopolite Dynasty, and established the XI. Dynasty, with his capital a= t Thebes.

Third Period: = the Middle Empire. - Under the Antefs and Mentu-heteps of the XI. Dynasty the power of Egypt r= evived and the "Middle Empire" commenced. Their names are found as far s= outh as Wâdi Halfa, as well as at the mines of Hamamât. The greatest= of them, Mentu-hetep Neb-hapet-Ra, erected at Thebes the only temple of the Middle Em= pire which still exists, his funerary chapel at Dêr el-Bâhari, excav= ated by Naville and Hall in 1903-6. The last of them, Se-ânkh-ka-Ra, sent = an exploring expedition to Punt on the Somali coast. The= bes now became the capital of Egypt, and its local god, Amen, was raised to the head of the Pantheon and identif= ied with Ra, the Sun-god of Heliop= olis. The XII. Dynasty, which began with Amen-em-hat= I., was one of the most powerful and vigorous that over ruled over Egypt. The power of the local aristocracy was broken, and the great feudal princes became court officials. The authority of the Pharaoh was restored in realit= y as well as in name. Large temples were erected; the gold mines were worked in = the eastern desert, and the copper and malachine mines in Sinai, while the Egyp= tian frontier was advanced beyond the Second Cataract, where twin fortresses were constructed (by Senusert or Usertsen III.) at Semna and Kumma to protect the passage of boats. Senusert or Usertsen I., the second king of the dynasty, restored the Temple of Ra at Heliopolis, and erected there the two obelisks, one of which still remains. Amen-em-hât III. created the Fayyûm by damming back the waters = of the lake and forming a great reservoir for the surplus water of the Nile, w= hich was afterwards let out so as to irrigate central and northern Egypt. = It was in his reign also that observations were recorded of the height of the Nile at Semna, south of the Second Cataract. The Labyrinth was one of the most famous of his buildings, and his brick pyramid stood close to it at the modern Hawâra. The god of the Fayyûm w= as the crocodile-headed Sebek, whose name enters into those of several

HISTORY. [77]

of the kings of the XIII. Dynasty. Under = the earlier monarchs of the latter dynasty the power of Egypt continued undiminished, but the number of kmgs belonging to it enumerated in the Turin papyrus (more than 160), and the short reigns of many of them, show that, as time went on, internal dissensions must have arisen and the royal house have fallen into decay. Of the XIV. Dynasty we know nothing, except that it was = said to have come from Xois (now Sakhâ) in the Delta, and that its last Pharaoh, Timi= eos, wan conquered by the Hyksos, or Shepherds, from Asia= . At first we are told by Manetho the invaders devastated the country, destro= ying the cities and temples, and slaying the population, but after a time they passed under the influence of Egyptian culture, and the XV., XVI., and XVII. Dynasties consisted of Hyksos Pharaohs. The capital, which is said to have = been at first Memphis, was moved to Zoan (Tanis) and Avaris= on the Asiatic frontier, and the Hyksos chieftain became an Egyptian Pharaoh. It w= as in the reign of one of them (Apepi I. Aa-user-Ra) that the great mathematical papyrus was written, and part of the statue of another (Khian Se-user-en Ra) has been fou= nd by Dr. Naville at Bubastis. This Khian appears to have been a powerful sovereign. His name appears on a small lion from Bagdad (no douby originally from Baby= lon), now in the British Museum, and on the lid of an alabaster stibium-= pot of Egyptian manufacture, found in the excavations of the Mycenaan palace at Knossos in Crete.= This fact, taken in conjunction with the circumstance that a statuette of a priv= ate person of the Hyksos period has also been found at Kn= ossos, seems to show that connection between Egypt= and Crete already existed during the Hvk= sos period at least two hundred years before the already known connection in the reigns of Hatshepsu and Thothmes III. The Egyptians rose at last against th= eir conquerors under the leadership of the hereditary prince of Thebes, Se-kenon-Ra Taa I. - according to the Sallier papyrus, in consequence of his suzerain, the Hyksos Pharaoh Apepi II. Aa-kenen-Ra insisting on his worshipping the Hyksos god Sutekh. The war lasted for five generations, the Thoban princes taking the title of king and forming a rival XVII. Dynasty to the Hyksos Dynasty in the north, and it ended in the complete expulsion of the foreigners and the ris= e of the XVIII. Dynasty under Aahmes I., with the capital at Thebes. With the rise of the XVIII. Dynasty begins the period of the New Empire.

Fourth Period:= the New Empire. - <= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Aahmes I., or Amosis (B.C. 1600), was the son of Ka-mes, the last king of the Theban X= VII. Dynasty, and Aah-hetop, the queen whose jewels form so remarkable a feature= of the Cairo= Museum. The kings of the XVIII. Dy= nasty carried the war into Asia, and founded an Egyptian Empire, which extended f= rom the Euphrates in the north to Gebel Barkal in the Sudan. Treasure and captives = flowed into Egypt from conquered countries, the gold mines in the desert were actively worked, and trade was carried on by sea with distant lands. = Temples and other public monuments were erected out of the spoils of war, and art and literature were diligently cultivated. Some of the finest monuments that will be visited by the travel= ler were the work of the monarchs of the XVIII. Dynasty; Dêr el-Bâh= ari, the Temple of Hatshepsu, whose obelisk in the Temple of Karnak to her "Father Amen" is the highest now existing; certain of the quarrie= s at Silsilis, and numerous tombs

[78] HISTORY.

in the Theban mountain; a portion of the = Temple of Karnak; the colossal figures of Am= en-hetep III. in the plain of Thebes; and innumerable statues, and other works of ar= t. Her chief monument is the beautiful temple dedicated in honour of Amen and = the deceased Thothmes I. at Dêr el-Bâhari. The pecu= liar plan of this temple, with its terraces, colonnades, and ramps, was partly imitated from that of the smaller and older temple of Mentu-hetep III., alr= eady referred to, by its side. Her reign was peaceful, and was marked by the gre= at expedition to Punt (Somaliland) depicted= on the walls of the temple. Thothmes III., who reigned between 1550 and 1500 B= .C., was the younger brother of Thothmes II. and Hatshepsu by an inferior wife o= f Thothmes I., named Isis. After a long period of tutelage he ascended t= he throne and immediately resumed the work of northern conquest which his fath= er had initiated, ravaging and subduing the whole of Pal= estine and Syria to the Euphrates. Henceforth, for over 300 years. Western Asia remained more or less under Egyptian domination. Thothmes III. was fond of natural history, and on the ruined wa= lls of his temple at Karnak are depicted the plants and animals from foreign la= nds with which he stocked his botanical and zoological gardens at Thebes. Two of the successors of Thothm= es III. (Thothmes IV. and Amen-hetep III.) intermarried with the royal family = of Mitanni= , the Aram-Naharaim, or Mesopotamia of Scripture, and so introduced an Asiatic st= rain into the blood of the Pharaohs. Under Amen-hetep III. the Egyptian Empire reached its greatest extent, including part of Mesop= otamia (Naharain, "the two rivers"). The cuneiform tablets found at Tell el-Amarna (described bel= ow), containing the diplomatic correspondence of the time, show that this Asiatic dominion was governed partly by native rulers devoted to the interests of Egypt, partly by actual Egyptian officials; royal commissioners were also s= ent from Egypt from time to time on circuit to examine and report on matters at issue. The son and successor of Amen-hetep III. was "the heretic king" Amun-hetep IV., who, under the influence of his mother Tii, endeavoured to substitute a monotheism, under the form of the worship of the solar disk, for the official religion of Egypt. The cult and very name= of Amen were proscribed, the name being erased from the monuments wherever it occurred, and the king changed his own name from Amen-hetep to Akhu-n-Aten = or Khu-n-Aten, 'the glory of the solar disk." In the struggle which ensued between the Pharaoh and the powerful hierarchy of Thebes, Khu-n-Aten found himself obliged to leave the capital of his fathers and build a new one fur= ther north, called Akhut-Aten, the site of which is now the tract known as Tell el-Amarna, occupied by the villages of et-Tell Beni-Amrân and Hagg Kandîl. Here he surrounded himself with the adherents of the new cree= d, and erected in it a temple to the solar disk, as well as a palace for himse= lf, adorned with painting, sculpture, gold, bronze, and inlaid work in precious stones. Along with the religious reform had gone a reform in art; the old hieratic canon of Egyptian art was abandoned and a striving for realism took its place. Adjoining the palace was "the house of rolls," or record-office, where the cuneiform tablets were discovered which have throw= n so much light on the history of Egypt and Canaan in the century before the Exo= dus. They consist for the most part of letters and despatched from the kings of Babylonia, Assyria, Mesopotamia, Cappadocia, and northern Syria, = as well as the

HISTORY. [79]

Egyptian governors and vassal kings in Ca= naan and Syria. They are all written in the cuneiform script of Babylonia, and with one or = two exceptions in the Babylonian language, which is thus shown to have been at = the time the common language of diplomacy and education throughout Western Asia. The tomb of Khu-n-Aten was discovered= in 1891.

The death of the king was followed by civ= il and religious war and the loss of the empire in Asia. The city of Akhut-Aton was destroyed, not to be inhabited again; the heretical monotheism, which h= ad never attained any influence outside the royal court, was disused, and the = worship of Amen was restored. The stones of Khu-n-Aten's temple to the solar disk w= ere even carried off by Hor-em-heb (the Armais of Manetho), and used in the tem= ple of the victorious Amen at Karnak. Hor-em= -heb was followed by Ramses = I., the founder of the XIX. Dynasty. His = son, Seti I., and grandson, Ramses II. (about 1330-1270 B.C.), restored the Egyptian authority in Canaan, b= ut the occupation of Kadesh on the Orontes = by the Hittites prevented his advance further north. A long war with the Hittitss,= in which neither side gained any decided advantage, was closed in the 21st yea= r of Ramses II. by a treaty of alliance, defensive and offensive, a copy of whic= h is engraved on the walls of Karnak. Here we= may read the poem of the court poet Pentaur, who has made a personal deed of prowess, performed by Ramses II. at Kadesh, the subject of an epic. Seti I. was the founder of the Temple of Kûrna as well as of tha= t at Abydos. Ramses II= ., who reigned 67 years, was the Osymandyas of the Greeks, and the greatest builder known in Egypt. The Ramesseum, the great Hall of Columns at Karnak, and the marvellous Temple of Abû-Simbel, are the most fam= ous of his constructions. Much of his work, however, is poor, solidity and finish being sacrificed to haste and grandiose effect. Dr. Naville's excavations a= t Tell el-Maskhuta have shown that he was the builder of Pa-Tum, the Biblical Pith= om, thus proving that Egyptologists had reason to make him the Pharaoh of the Oppression. The Exodus may have taken place under one of his immediate succ= essors, Mer-en-ptah, Seti II., or So-Ptah. In the reign of Mer-en-ptah Egypt was attacked, both by sea and land, by northern and Libyan tribes, some of = whom had come from the islands and shores of the Greek seas, and were what are k= nown as "Mycenaeans." The invaders were defeated in a decisive battle = and Egypt w= as saved. The XIX. Dynasty fell in the midst of civil and religious war. Peace= was restored by Set-nekht, the founder of the XX. Dynasty, whose son, Ramses II= I., was the last of the native conquering Pharaohs. Another great invasion of Libyan and northern hordes, among whom figured the Philistines, then probab= ly in course of their migration from Crete to Palestine, was successfully repu= lsed by him, and the record of his victory was inscribed on the walls of the tem= ple of Medînet Habû, which he built in gratitude to his gods. Here, too, we learn that he made a campaign into = Syria as well as one into what was subsequently the te= rritory of Judah, the name of Shalem or = Jerusalem occurri= ng among his conquests. But the campaigns were merely raids, and the occupation of <= st1:City w:st=3D"on">Gaza and other cities in southern Palestine by the Pulista, or Philistines, blocked the wa= y to the future march of an Egyptian army. From the Harris papyrus we gather that the wealth of the Pharaoh must have been

[80] HISTORY.

very great, which will explain why, under= the name of Rhampsintos, he was made the hero of the famous folk-tale recounted= by Herodotos. The mines of the eastern desert and of Sinai were still worked, = as well as others in Arabia. With the death of R= amses III. Egypt began to decline. His successors all bore the same name, but their power was gradually supplanted by the High-priests of Amen. The last of them (Ramses XII.) was succeeded by Nes-Bindidi, or Smendes, the founder of the XXI. Dyn= asty. The kings of this dynasty reigned in the north with their capital al Tanis (Zoan), and the High-priests of Amen soon beca= me practically independent in Upper Egypt. El-Hîb= a was fortified by the latter against an attack from the north, Gebelên aga= inst an attack from the south. It was while they were all-powerful at Thebes that the mummies of the earlier kings of Egypt w= ere hidden in the pit at Dêr el-Bâhari. The dynasty was overthrown = by Shashank: I., the Shishak of Scripture, = who was the commander of the Libyan mercenaries. He founded the XXII. Dynasty, = and fixed his capital at Bubastis<= /st1:place>. The list of places captured by him in Judah= and Israel is engraved= at Karnak. One of his successors, Osorkon II., constru= cted the great Festival Hall at Bub= astis, discovered by Dr. Naville, and is supposed to be the Zerah of the Old Testament. Under the XX= III. Dynasty Egypt fell into complete decay. The authority of the Pharaoh became nominal only,= a number of princes setting themselves up throughout the country, who acted l= ike independent kings. The Ethiopians of the Su= dan now began to invade = Egypt. First came Piankhi while Osorkon III., the second king of the XXIII. Dynast= y, was reigning at Bubastis. Finally the Ethiopian Sabako expelled the native rulers, founded the XXV. Dynasty, and united all Egypt under his sway. His second successor was Taharka, the Tirhakah of Scripture= . He was defeated by Esar-haddon, the Assyrian monarch, and driven back to the <= st1:country-region w:st=3D"on">Sudan, Egypt being divided by the Assyrians into twenty satrapies. More than once, however, Taharka made an attempt to recover his lost sovereignty, with the help of the Theban priest= s, who encouraged revolts against the Assyrian domination. But these revolts merely ended in disaster to the Egyptians, and eventually Thebes was taken by storm by the genera= l of the Assyrian king, Assur-bani-pal, its inhabitants carried into captivity, = and its temples burned and demolished (B.C. 668). Allusion is made to this destruction of Thebes, or No-Amon, by the prophet Nahum (iii. 8, 9). The Assyrians were eventually expelled by Psammetichus I= ., the satrap of Saïs, who took advantage of a great rebellion against Assyrian authority, which had broken out in Asia under the leadership of the Viceroy of Babylonia, and who, with the help of Greek and Carian mercenaries sent by Gyges of Lydia, established the XXVI. Dynasty with its capital at Sais, and once= more united Egypt under one strong government. During the anarchy of the period of the "= Dodekarchy," before his reign, Milesian colonists had settled in the Delta, the Bolbitine branch of the Nile. These settlers were = afterards moved to Naukratis, at the other extremity of the Delta, where a regular Gr= eek city was founded under the protection of the Pharaohs of the XXVI. Dynasty,= who encouraged Greek trade. Egypt was now opened to Greek visitors for the first time since the old days of t= he Mycenaean connection, and many Greek philosophers and physicians, among them Thales and Pythagoras, are said to have visited

HISTORY. [81]

the Nile-land in search of wisdom. On the renascent Greek art of the "Archaic" period Egyptian models certa= inly exercised considerable influence, and the sculptor and bronze-worker Theodo= ros of Samos was said to have visited Egypt and have derived his inspiration thence. Egyptian art itself underwent a revival at this period,= the work of the Old Kingdom being taken as t= he general model; the art of the XXVI. Dynasty is thus more or less archaistic= in style. Of the successors of Psammetichus I., Necho aspired to renew Egyptian domination in West= ern Asia; he invaded Palestine and defeated Jo= siah of Judah at Megiddo in 608 B.C., but was f= our years later himself defeated by the Babylonian King Nebuchadrezzar at Carchemish. Apries= (Haa-ab-Ra, Hophra) endeavoured unsuccessfully to reassert Egyptian authority in Palestine, and in the reign of his usurping successo= r, Amasis (Aahmes II.), Cyprus became subject to Eg= ypt. The influence of the art of Egypt on that of Cyprus at this time is very evident. Amasis' son, Psammetichus III., was defeated = and put to death by Kambyses, son of Cyrus, who made Egypt a province of the Persian Empire. <= /o:p>

Fifth Period: = Persians and Greeks = (B.C. 525-30). - The Persians are reckoned as the XXVII. Dynasty, and during their occupation attempts, more or less successful, were made by native insurgent= s to drive them out. Amyrtaeos, who is said to have been a scion of the ancient royal family, made the host stand, and is reckoned the sole king of the XXV= III. Dynasty. There were several sovereigns of the XXIX. Dynasty; among whom we = need only mention Nepheritos I., Achoris, and Nepherites II., all of whom were f= or a time independent. The struggle went on under Nectanebo I.= (Nekht-her-hebet), whose name remains on the magnificent granite shrine of the temple at Edf&u= circ;. In his time Plato visited Egypt as an oil merchant. Two weak kings succeeded Nectanebo I.= , and form the XXX. Dynasty; but the overwhelming power of Alexander the Great so= on annihilated the independence of Egypt, and it fell on his death to the shar= e of his general, Ptolemy, who, putting an end to the disorder which had prevail= ed for two centuries, was hailed as the founder of a now dynasty and the savio= ur (soter) of the country. Under his w= ise administration Egypt= once more prospered. The new city of Alexandria was his capital, whore the body of the great Macedonian was preserved for ages, and under him, and the second and third kings of his family, learning and the a= rte flourished. The Ptolemies conformed in public to the customs and religion of their new country; they built new temples and restored the old sanctuaries. Some of the most remarkable of the gigantic edifices of the Pharaohs were emulated in Dendera, Edfû, Esna, and Philae; while the inner shrines = of Karnak and Luxor attest their devotion to the Egyptian gods. Their names, translated but awkwardly into the hieroglyphic character, occur in many places, but their coins are Greek. Ptolemy II. (Philadelphos) is said to have employed a prie= st named Manetho of Sebennytus to write a national History, of which the List of Kin= gs alone has been preserved. The schools of Alexandria now became the best in the civilised world, and the wisdom which so largely= enters into the teaching of Moses and of Plato was rather illustrated than altoget= her superseded. Diodorus visited Egy= pt in the reign of Ptolemy XIII. (Auletes). Family strife eventually reduced t= he Ptolemaïc kingdom to a state of dependence

g

[82] HISTORY.

on the goodwill and protection of the Rom= an Senate and people, and in Cicero's days ex= iled Ptolemies voyaged to Rome to cajole or bribe the leaders of the republic support their claims. Many t= imes before the establishment of the principate at Rome it was proposed to absorb Egypt, and Caesar actually took (and was himself besieged in) Alexandria, b= ut it was not until just before the dawn of the Christian era that Augustus put the last of the family, Caesarion, the son of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar, = to death, and annexed Egypt to the Roman Empire.

Sixth Period: = Rome (B.C. 30-A.D. 640). - Under= Rome Egypt was for a time well governed and rich, but its importance in the history of= early Christianity gives it an interest beyond that derived from its actual condition. Though the names of the Caesars occur in cartouches, and one or = two temples, as that at Esna and "Pharaoh's Bed" at Philae, attest th= eir care for the old religion, it rapidly altered its character and degenerated among the people; and Hadrian, who visited Egypt in A.D. 122, gave it a blo= w by his addition of Antinous to the number of the Egyptian gods. Before the rei= gn of Severus edicts were necessary for the repression of Christianity, to whi= ch the persecution of Diocletian only added strength. <= st1:City w:st=3D"on">Alexandria became a nursery of rival se= cts; and to their zeal and learning the modern world owes the collection and preserv= ation of the books of the New Testament. Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, annexed Egypt to her short-lived realm, A.D. 270, = but at her defeat Rome was again supreme. Though Constantine made Christianity the established religion of his empire, heathenism, especially under a modified Gnostic form, still lingered in Egypt until the edict of Theodosius, A.D. 379, which made it unlawful. Yet proofs exist that in the sacred isle of Philae and other places t= he altars of Osiris and Isis were not wholly destroyed until nearly a century later. The period of Egyptian decline culminated under the feeble rule of t= he Byzantine emperors, heretics raised the people in frequent tumults, famine followed maladministration, and another Asiatic invasion, under Chosroes the Persian, lost Egypt to the empire for ten years (A.D. 619-629). Its resourc= es, like its ancient civilisation, were wholly exhausted, and it fell an easy p= rey to the Arabs under 'Amr, or Amru, A.D. 640.

Seventh Period= : Arabs and Turks (= A.D. 640-1882). - Although the first care of the new masters of Egypt was rather to change and destroy, it was not long before the new conquest became the headquarters of= Islâm. In many places, as the Delta, the peasants accepted the new faith. In other= s, as the Howâra, colonies from Arabia almost exterminated the old inhabitants. The Copts, as the Egyptian Christi= ans are still called, wore at first treated with toleration; but, owing chiefly= to their own seditions, were afterwards persecuted, and for many centuries were kept in a state of subjection. The Abbaside Khalîfs promoted learning= and architecture. El-Mamûn, a son of the celebrated Hârûn er-= Rashîd, caused the translation of Greek mathematical and astronomical works. His nephew, El-Mutawekkil, established the Nilometer at Rôda. On the accession of the Tulûnide kings Egypt became really if not nominally independent of the Khalîf, who latterly resided, as a kind = of pope, in semi-obscurity under their protection. Ahmed ibn-Tûlûn built the great mosque which bears his name within the walls of =

HISTORY. [83]

Cairo; but the capital was then F= ustât. The first of the Fatimides in Egypt, Abn Tummim or El-Muîzz, built Ca= iro in A.D. 969, and it has ever since been the chief city. Under this dynasty = the country flourished. The great mosque of El-Hâkim was built in A.D. 10= 03. In 1176 the Frank Crusaders attacked and partly burnt Cairo, but Yûsuf, called Saladin, erected the fortifications which still rem= ain, and left marks of his munificence and taste in many places. The Bahr Y&ucir= c;suf, a canal which he made, or perhaps restored, runs for nearly four hundred mi= les parallel to the Nile, and irrigates vast= tracts. In 1249, the French king, Louis IX., was taken prisoner in Egypt, = almost at the same time that the dynasty of Saladin came to an end. The Bahê= ride Mameluke sultans continued, however, the great public works he had commence= d, and the mosques of Sultan Kalaûn and Sultan Hasan are so fine as almo= st to make amends for the destruction of the ancient monuments from whose materials they were built. The number of handsome buildings of this period = all over Egypt attests the general prosperity of the country, notwithstanding the unsettled state of the government, which passed from sultan to sultan, and from famil= y to family, with a frequency which is bewildering. The tombs of these Mameluke kings, and the magnificent copies of the Kurân written for them and n= ow in the library at Cairo, show that the arts still flourished. The mosque of Barkûk dates befor= e 1399; that of Kâit Bey is all but a century later. In 1501 Sultan El-Gh&uci= rc;ri was defeated at Aleppo by the Turks, and i= n 1517 Sultan Tûmân Bey, his nephew, lost a second battle near Heliopolis, and w= as put to death by the invader. The Turks removed the residence of the fainéant Khalîf to Constantinople, and made Egypt a pashalik. Their careless government was much impeded by the local Arab magnates, who formed tributary principalities all through the country. Duri= ng the war of the Turks with Russia in 1771, one of these princes. Ali Bey, made himself master of all Egypt. = His successor was recognised by the Turks, and it seemed for a time as if a nat= ive dynasty was once more about to be established; but in 1798 Bonaparte invade= d Egypt, defeated the so-called Mamelukes ne= ar the Pyramids, and took Cairo. Lord Nelson having at the battle of the Nile destroyed the French fleet, Bonaparte retired to France, leaving General Kléber behind. Kléber was assassinated by an Arab, and General Menou, his successor, had to capitulate to the English, w= ho, under Abercromby, had won the battle of Alexandria, 21st March, 1801. A few years later the Turks appointed the clever but unscrupulous Mohammed Ali to the government of Egypt; and after a few years of struggle with the native chiefs, his power was fin= ally established in 1811 by the treacherous slaughter of the Mameluke Beys and t= heir followers, 470 in number, in the citadel of Cairo. Under the rule of Mohammed Ali E= gypt rapidly rose in importance, the Sudan was annexed, and in 1831 he declared war against the Sultan with the view of obtaining complete independence. His efforts would probably have been successful but for the intervention of the European Powers, who obliged him= to quit Syria, which had been conquered from the Turks by his son Ibrâhîm, and acknowledge the Porte as his suzerain. Abdul Modjid, on receiving his submission in 1841, ma= de the viceroyalty hereditary in his family. During his long reign Mohammed Ali endeavoured in many ways be improve the material and moral condition of the country. Schools were founded, Europeans were encouraged =

g 2

[84] HISTORY.

to settle in the country, and wore even appointed to public offices; canals and embankments were restored, and the cultivation of the cotton plant was introduced. In the latter years of his = life he became imbecile, and in 1848 was succeeded by his son Ibrâhîm, who, however, died the follow= ing year, just shortly before Mohammed Ali's own death. The next ruler was Abbas Pasha, son of Tussûm Pasha, and grandson of Mohammed Ali. He was a suspicious and brutal tyrant, who stopped the reforms begun by his grandfat= her, and lived in constant dread of assassination, a fate which eventually befell him in 1854, at the hands of his own servants. His uncle Saîd Pasha, Mohammed Ali's third son, succeeded, and under him Egypt again entered on the pa= th of reform. But unfortunately the finances of the country wore not equal to supporting the extravagance of an Oriental potentate as well as his schemes= for its improvement, and in 1862 Egypt began the rôle of a borro= wer, which she has since followed with such fatal facility. Railways were begun = in this reign; the scheme for cutting through the Isthm= us of Suez assumed a definite shape, and a commencement of the actua= l canal was made; and the first steps were taken towards making the study and preservation of the old monuments a national care. At the death of Saî= ;d in 1863, Ismaîl Pasha, the second son of Ibrâhîm Pasha, a nephew of Saîd, succeeded to the viceroyalty. Able and energetic in a remarkable degree, be endeavoured to carry out all his grandfather's schemes for the introduction of European civilisation, and indeed went far beyond t= hem. In order the better to succeed he at once aimed at securing virtual if not actual independence of the Porte; and by the firman of 1866 giving him the title of Khedive, and making the succession direct from father to son inste= ad of its descending according to Turkish law to the oldest heir, and a subseq= uent firman of 1878 giving him the power to make treaties and otherwise act inde= pendently, his object was nearly attained. The reforms accomplished during his reign w= ere many and important, and numerous public works bear witness to his zeal; but unfortunately the resources of the country did not keep pace with these many improvements, which have only been accomplished at the expense of burdening= the country with an enormous debt, and completely impoverishing the peasantry. = That future generations will benefit cannot be doubted, but more credit would ha= ve been gained for what has really been done had it been done gradually, with a better adaptation of the means to the end, and without pressing so hardly on the present generation. In June, 1879, Ismaîl was deposed by the Sult= an at the request or dictation of the European Powers interested in Egypt, = and his eldest son, Mohammed Tewfik, succeeded him. Tewfik, having owed his throne = to the action of the European Powers, placed himself entirely under their control,= and the government of the country was practically in the hands of Major Baring,= now Lord Cromer, and Monsieur de Blignières, the British and French Commissioners of the debt. Every effort was mode to reduce expenditure, and among other economies, the army was very largely reduced. This created a serious feeling of discontent among the officers, and in February, 1881, a military revolt broke out, which was the commencement of future troubles. T= he Egyptian Chamber of Notables had assembled on the 26th December, 1881, and = on the 31st they claimed their right to consider the Egyptian Budget. On the 1= 0th January, 1882, the British and French Consuls-General

HISTORY. [85]

presented a joint note to the Khedive to = the effect that, under certain circumstances, the Governments of France and England might be obliged to take a more ac= tive part to guard against all chance of complications in Egypt. On the 20th January, 1= 888, Sir E. Malet pointed out to the British Government that armed intervention in <= st1:country-region w:st=3D"on">Egypt w= ould become a necessity if the Chamber of Notables was refused permission to vot= e on the Budget. His prediction proved correct; and, after much correspondence, = an Anglo-French fleet assembled in Suda Bay, and arrived in Alexandria on the 20th May. On the 28th= May the Egyptian Ministry resigned, on the ground that the Khedive, in acquiesc= ing in foreign interference, had acted in opposition to the firmans of the Sult= an. Tewfik telegraphed to the Sultan, asking that a Turkish Commissioner might = be sent to Egypt. The request was acceded to, and Dervish Pasha arrived at Alexandria on the 7th June. The situati= on became more strained daily, and on the 11th June a riot took place in Alexandria, in wh= ich a number of Europeans lost their lives. The power of the Khedive diminished, while the influence of Arabi Pasha and the military party, who believed that Tewfik was playing into the hands of France= and England, increased. A conference assembled at Constantinople<= /st1:place>, but this led to little result. The French Government, having failed to obta= in a vote of credit from the Chamber of Deputies, wore unable to take active measures. The British Admiral, Sir Beauchamp Seymour, observing that the Egyptians were arming some batteries, sent an ultimatum to the Egyptian commander, and on the refusal of the latter to desist, opened fire on the f= orts on the 11th July. The forts wore silenced, and on the following evening Alexandria was fi= red by the Egyptian populace and troops, who retired into the interior of the coun= try. A British expedition was sent out under the command of Lord Wolseley, who, = after defeating the Egyptian troops at Tel el-Kobîr, took possession of Cairo on the 14th = September. The late Khedive was brought back under British protection, and since that = time Egypt has been occupied by British troops and been practically under the British = Government, although a native ministry still conducts the internal affairs of the count= ry.

Eighth Period:= Britain= (From A.D. 1882). - Under t= he British control various abuses have been removed, the administration of jus= tice has been thoroughly reformed, the bastinado abolished, the corvée done away with, and taxation lightened and equita= bly exacted. The finances have also been placed on a firm footing, and the shattered credit of the country restored. On account of the necessity of economy and rest from military undertakings, the Sudan and its trade had to be= given up for sixteen years. In 1883 Muhammad Ahmad, a Dongolâwi, proclaimed himself a Mahdi or Messiah, and raised the standard of religious revolt aga= inst the Egyptian Government in the Sudan. He took el-Obeid and annihilated Hicks Pasha and his army. General Gordon w= as sent out from England = by the Gladstone Ministry to reoccupy the post of Governor-General of the Sudan, = which he had before held under Ismaîl; he could do nothing, however, and was s= oon himself beseiged in Khartûm. The littoral at Suâkin was dominat= ed by an anti-European fanatic named Osman Digua, and fighting ensued there also. It now bec= ame necessary to extricate Gordon, and an expedition was despatched up the Nile to do this under Sir Garnet (now Lord) Wolseley. The mission of Gordon had been a mistake from the first,

[86] HISTORY.

and now a second mistake was made (but wi= th more show of excuse) in regard to the route taken by the rescuing expeditio= n. The Suâkin Berber route should have been chosen. Much time was wasted= on the Nile transport, and before the exped= ition could reach Khartûm the city had fallen and Gordon was dead (Jan. 26, 1885). The Sudan was now entirely abandoned as far north as Aswân. The Mahdists, think= ing they had driven the British and Egyptians out of the Sudan, and were going = to drive them into the sea, attacked Egypt, but were defeated at Ginnis (Dec. = 30, 1885). Osman Digna continued to keep the Suâkin coast in a state of unrest, and in 1889 = the Mahdists again attacked Egypt, being defeated at Toski by General (now Lord) Grenfell on Aug. 3, 1889. The Mahdist attacks on E= gypt now ceased. In 1887 an abortive attempt was made to determine the British occupation of Egypt by= the negotiation of the Drummond-Wolff Convention; this fell through owing to the refusal of Turkey to sign the provisions. French opposition to the British control now began = to take form and became troublesome. In 1892 the Khedive Tewfik died and was s= ucceeded by his son Abbas II. Hilmi, a young man who did not at first understand his position vis-à-vis the B= ritish Government. He appears now to have realised the necessity of the British control over the country of which he is, be it remembered, not the legitima= te ruler, but only viceroy, and works loyally with the British for the improve= ment of Egypt. French resentment at the British occupation of Egypt, however, did not cool down till the= reoccupation of the Sudan brought m= atters to a head, and the "Fashoda incident" showed the French nation th= at the only means by which England could be deprived of her predominant position in the Nile valley was war. This was not desired, and matters are now happily settled i= n a friendly manner by an international arrangement (1904) which guarantees Bri= tish authority, especially in matters of finance, while leaving to France = the enjoyment of her "historical claims" and the control of the servi= ce of antiquities. The reoccupation of the Sud= an was carried out in the years 1896-9 by General Sir Herbert (now Lord) Kitchener, withou= t difficulty. Mahdism was destroyed, and Khartûm became the capital of the new Anglo-Egyptian condominium of the Sudan. The development of the rescued territory has proceeded apace, and is now assured of steady progres= s by the opening of the new railway from the Nile to Suâkin and Port Sudan (1906).= The year 1906 also saw the settlement of a serious difficulty between Egypt and = Turkey. The question of the Sinaïtic frontier, which had been raised by a Turkish occupation of th= e village of Tabah, near Akaba, was settled, after a British ultimatum to Turkey, according to the terms of the understanding of 1892, by which the frontier = was drawn in a straight line from er-Raf'a to Akaba. The incident somewhat unse= ttled the minds of the natives, and resulted in a regrettable attack on British officers near the village= of Denshwai, in the Delta, in which Captain Bull was killed. The murderers wore executed, and t= he temporary recrudescence of Moslem fanaticism (always existing, though dorma= nt, in Mohammedan countries) has now died down, and tourists need not fear any untoward incident.

3. Chronologic= al Table to B.C. 30.

Any chronological table of the early King= s of Egypt must necessarily be given with great reserve. There can be no certain= ty before

HISTORY. [87]

the rise of the XVIII. Dynasty. The enorm= ous number of years required by the only ancient authority extant, the lists of Manetho, has caused many authors to consider some of the dynasties given by= him as not successive but contemporaneous. Recent discoveries, however, seem to show that the dynasties of which he gives a list did succeed one another, w= ith one or two exceptions.

The following table embraces the period f= rom the first dynasty to the final absorption of the country into the Roman Empire. It gives the number and title of each dynasty, the places at which monuments of it are found, the names of the principal kings and the dates. Up to the XVIII. Dynasty these can only m approximate, but from the beginning of the XVIII. Dynasty onwards no greater error than 30 to 50 years is possible. The approximate dates up to the XVII= I. Dynasty are those of Brugsch's great 'History of Egypt under the Pharaohs,' modifie= d, when necessary, in accordance with modern discoveries.

I. THINITE (from This, near Abydos).

About B.C. 4400

[The legendary Mena (Menes). "Founder of Memphis."]

Probably a later reminiscence of the real= early kings, Aha, and Narmer (?).

II. MEMPHITE.

4100 (For chief kings, see p. [123].)

III. MEMPHITE.

Mastabas of B&= ecirc;t Khallâf; Pyramid of Mêdûm; Wâdi Maghâra (Sina= i).

3766 Tjeser.

Sneferu= .

IV. MEMPHITE.

Gîza; Sakkâra; Wâdi Maghâra (Sinai).

3733 Khufu (Cheops, Suphis). Great Pyramid of Gîza built. <= /p>
3666 Khafra (Chephren). Second Pyramid of Gîza built.

3633 Men-kau-Ra (Mykerinos), Third Pyramid of Gîza built.

V. HELIOPOLITAN.

Sakkâra; Abusîr; Wâdi Maghâra (Sinai).

3533 Kaka. The first king known to have used the double cartouche. <= /p>
Ne-user-Ra An<= /span>. Pyramid and Sun-temple at Abûsîr.

3366 Tat-ka-Ra Assa. The tomb of Thi at Sakkâra dates from about this period.

3333 Unas.

VI. MEMPHITE.

Sân; Sakkâra; Shêkh Sa'id; Aswân; Abydos; Wâdi Maghâra (Sinai) &c.

3233 Meri-Ra Pepi I. (Apappus). The name of this king is found in a great many places from Sân to Aswân; he appears to have been an able and powerful ruler. According to the Greek accounts, he reigned 100 years. Pyramid at Sa= kkâra.

Merenra.

Expedition of Herkhuf to Nubia.

Nefer-ka-ra = Pepi II.

[88] HISTORY.

VII. MEMPHITE.

VIII. MEMPHITE.

IX. HERAKLEOPOLITE (Ahnas).

X. HERAKLEOPOLITE (Ahnas and Asyût).

Few records of these four dynasties have = as yet been found on any of the monuments.

XI. THEBAN.

Dêr el-Bâhari and Dra' Abû'l Negga, Thebes; Hammamât; Konosso; Shatt er-Rigala, &c.

About B.C. 2500 Antef and Mentu-hetep appear to have been the names borne by many of the kings of this dynasty. U= nder one of the latter, Neb-hapet-Ra Mentu-hetep, Egypt appears to have again risen in importance. Re= nascence of art.

Seankh-ka-Ra Mentu-hetep. Expedition of Hanu to Punt.

XII. THEBAN (royal seat at Athet-taui, in= the neighbourhood of the Fayyûm).

Sân; Hel= iopolis; Fayyûm; Beni Hasan; Asyût; Abydos; Karnak; Semna; Wâdi Ma= ghâra (Sinai), &c.

2466 Amen-em-hat I. The first king of this dynasty, under which <= st1:country-region w:st=3D"on">Egypt reached to a high pitch= of prosperity.

2433 Senusert or Usertsen I. The obelisk now= standing at Heliopolis was erected in this king's reign. His glories and those of his two successo= rs, Amen-em-hat II. and Usertsen II., are celebrated in inscriptions in the tombs of Am= eni and Khnem-hetep at Beni Hasan.

2333 Senusert or Usertsen III. A great conqu= eror; memorials of his victories over the "Kushites," or Nubians, are f= ound at Semna, above the Second Cataract.

2300 Amen-em-hat III. Conferred great benefit on the country by the construction of dike= s, reservoirs, and canals for regulating the inundations of the Nile; the most celebrated = of these works was Lake Moeris in the Fayy&= ucirc;m, close to which he also built the famous Labyrinth. Records of the rise of t= he Nile during his reign are found at Semna, where he = caused regular observations of the increase in the river to be taken and forwarded northwards.

XIII. THEBAN.

Sân; Asy= ût; Abydos; Thebes; El Kab; First Cataract; Semna; Argo.<= /p>

2200-2000 Sebek-hetep. This name appears to have been borne by several kings of this dynasty; one,= Sebek-hetep III., records the hei= ght of the Nile in the third year of his reign = on the rocks at Semna. XII. Dynasty kingdom preserved in its entirety from Dongola= to the Delta for at least two centuries. Later, the name Sebek-em-sa-f appears.

XIV. XOÏTE (?).

XV. HYKSOS or SHEPHERDS.

XVI. HYKSOS or SHEPHERDS.

HISTORY. [89]

XVII. HYKSOS or SHEPHERDS IN MIDDLE AND L= OWER EGYPT AND NATIVE KINGS AT THEBES (the 4 last of the latter being Sekenen-Ra Taa I.; Seke= nen-Ra Taa II.; Sekenen-Ra Taa III.; Uatj-Kheper-Ra Kames). =

Hyksos; Bubastis; Sân (?); Uppe= r Egypt.

B.C. 1750 Se-user-n-Ra Khian, "embracing territories." Aa-user-Ra Apepi I., in whose reign the great = mathematical papyrus was written.

Aa-kenen-Ra Ap= epi II., under whom the feudal prin= ce of Thebes revolted, = and the war of independence began.

The whole of the period of Egyptian histo= ry from the XIII. to the XVII. Dynasty inclusive is wrapped in obscurity. It in evident that while the three Hyksos dynasties reigned in Lower Egypt and the Delta, the old Theban royal race still held sway in the south as tributarie= s of the Hyksos. The Sallier papyrus in the British Museum introduces us to Apepi and a certain Sekenen-Ra, a "hak" or governor of "the town of the south," as contemporaries; and a long inscription in a tomb at el-= Kab gives an account of the capture of Avaris, the chief town of the Hyksos, by Aahmes, or Amosis, a successor of Sekenen-Ra, and the first king of the XVI= II. Dynasty.

XVIII. THEBAN. B.C. 1600.

Heliopolis; T&= ucirc;ra and Masâra; Tell el-Amarna; Karnak; el-Kab; Silsilis; Kôm Ombo;= Elephantinê; Amada; Wâdi Halfa; Gebel Barkal; Soleb; Sarâbit el-Khadîm= ; Wâdi Maghâra, &c.

B.C. 1600 Aahmes. The conqueror of the Hyksos, and founder of a powerful monarchy.

Amen-hetep (Amenôphis) I. The boundaries of Egypt extended.

Thothmes (Thothmosis) I. A g= reat conqueror, who carried the arms of Egypt into Syria.

Thothmes II. Reigned but a short time, in conjunction with his sister and queen, Hatshepsut.

Hatshepsu I., or Maat-ka-Ra. reigned alone for some time, on the death of her br= other, Thothmes II. The sculptures on the walls of Dêr el-Bâhari at Thebes commemorate a great expedition sent by her to= the land of Punt. She was succeeded by another= brother, Thothmes III., who for a short time reigned in conjunction with her. <= /o:p>

1500 Thothmes III. One of the most famous of Egyptian kings. During his long reign Egypt, in the language of the hieroglyphs, "placed its frontier where it pleased." He carried his victorious arms into W= estern Asia. The walls of his magnificent temple at Karnak are covered with inscriptions recounting his triumphs, and giving a list of= the countries and peoples conquered by him. His cartouche, with the name Men-kh= eper-Ra, occurs more frequently on remains of every kind, from temples down to scara= baei, than that of any other monarch. The greatest of Egyptian military kings.

[90] HISTORY.

Amen-hetep II.= Wars in Syria and Nubia.

Thothmes IV. Died young.

Amen-hetep III= . Numerous monuments, especia= lly at Luxor and Karnak,= attest the length and glory of his reign. The famous so-called Colossi, one of whi= ch is celebrated in Greek and Roman tradition as the vocal Memnon, bear his na= me.

B.C. 1400 Amen-hetep IV. or Khu-n-aten. This ki= ng, under the influence of his mother Tii, a foreigner, attempted to change the religion of Egypt, substituting a single deity, symbolised by Aton (the sun= 's disk), for the Theban gods, and removed the seat of government from Thebes = to a city which he founded and called Khut-aten, the modern Tell el-Amarna. He w= as succeeded by two or three other kings holding the same religious opinions.

Horemheb (Armais). On the accession = of Horemheb as a legitimate sovereign the old worship and capital were restore= d, and all traces of his heretical predecessors destroyed as much as possible.=

XIX. THEBAN.

Sân; Mem= phis; Abydos; Karnak; Kûrna; Luxor; Bêt-el-Walli; Dirr; Abû Sim= bel, &c.

1380 Ramses I.

Seti or <= st2:Sn w:st=3D"on">Mer-en-Ptah I.= (Sethos). A great conqueror, who carried his victorious arms far into Asia. He made the first canal between the Red Sea and the Nil= e. Many monuments of his magnificence exist in Egypt, especially at Karnak, Kûrna, and Abydos; and his tomb ("Belzoni's") is the most remarkable in every way of= the "Tombs of the Kings" at Thebes.

1330 Ramses II. User-Maat-Ra ("the Great"). The legendary Sesostris of the Greek historians.= His name was inscribed on nearly every monument of importance in Egypt, = and the story of his wars and putative deeds of valour is recounted in numerous inscriptions and papyrus rolls. He has also left memorials of his victories= in some of the countries he conquered, as, for instance, on the tablet at the mouth of the Nahr el-Kelb near Beyrût. He erected many splendid build= ings, as the ruins still testify, during his long reign of 67 years; he built also the city of Pithom= . A kind of Egyptian Louis XIV. His reign really not so glorious as that of A= men-hetep III., and himself really a less renowned conqueror than his father or Thoth= mes III. Forced to conclude a treaty on equal terms with the Kheta confederacy of Cappadocia and N. S= yria. No claim to the title "Great."

1270 Mer-en-Ptah II. Perhaps the Pharaoh of the Exodus. = Egypt raided by Libyans and N= ortherners. Two or three other unimportant reigns conclude this dynasty.

HISTORY. [91]

XX. THEBAN.

Both sides of = the river at Thebes.

B.C. 1200 Ramses III. The Rhampsinitos of Herodotos. He was the last of the warrior kings of Egypt. Defeated attack on Egypt by Philistines and other northern (Mycenaean) tribes. This victory is descr= ibed on the walls of the magnificent building erected by him at Medînet Habû. His tomb is one of the finest of the "Tombs of the Kings."

The remaining kings of this dynasty all b= ore the name of Ramses; the only ones of any note are Ramses VI. and Ramses IX. During their reigns = Egypt gradually declined in importance.

XXI. TANITE.

The history of this dynasty is somewhat obscure. A rival dynasty of High-priests of Amen, founded by Her-Hor, usurped its authority, and during the latter part of its continuance ruled Upper Egypt from Thebes. Chief nam= e Pinetjem,

XXII. BUBASTIDE.

Apis Mausoleum= at Sakkâra; Karnak; Silsilis,<= /p>
Circ. 950 = Shashank= I.= or Shishak I. The Shishak of t= he Bible, who captured and pillaged Jerusalem (1 Kings xiv. 25-28; 2 Chron. xii.) An inscription on one of the walls of t= he Great Hall at Karnak commemorates this campaign against Judah, = and gives a list of the conquered towns and districts.

The remaining kings of this dynasty are of little importance. One of them, Osorkon II., who built the great Festival H= all at Bubastis, may have been the Zerah of the Old Testament.

XXIII. TANITE.

An obscure dynasty of petty kings, of whom there appear from the monuments to have been three.

XXIV. SAÏTE.

Manetho assigns one king, Bocchoris called on the monuments Bakenranef, to this dynasty, and gives him a short reign of six= years. During the period embracing the latter part of the XXII. Dynasty, and the w= hole of the XXIII. and XXIV., Egypt would appear to have been exposed to invasions of the Ethiopian kings. A me= morial stone discovered at Gebel Barkal, near Meroë, gives an account of the conquests in Egypt of the Ethiopian king Piankhi, in the time of Osorkon III. (2nd king of the XXIII. Dynasty), whose successors founded the next dynasty.

[92] HISTORY.

XXV. ETHIOPIAN.

Karnak.

B.C. Circ. 715 Shabak or Sabaco.

Shabatak.

702 Taharaka or Tirhakah. Called "king= of Ethiopia (2 Kings xix. 9).

From the Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions = we learn that during the rule of this dynasty Egypt<= /st1:country-region> was invaded by the Assyrians under Esarhaddon the son of Sennacherib, who conquered Egypt B.C. 674. Tirhakah, however, returned, and was again driven into Ethiopia (B.C. 670) by Esar-haddon, who di= vided Egypt i= nto 20 satrapies under native princes. On these revolting at Esar-haddon's death, = and joining with Tirhakah, the country was again invaded by Esar-haddon's son, Assurbanipal (B.C. 668); and first Tirhakah, and then his successor, called= in the inscriptions Urdamaneh, were completely subdued, and Thebes= taken and destroyed. On the outbreak of a general revolt against the Assyri= an power, Psammetichos the son of Necho, the vassal prince of Saïs, succe= eded, with the help of mercenaries from Gyges, king of Lydia, in making himself independent and suppressing all rivals.

XXVI. SAÏTE. B.C. 664.

Sân; Apis Mausoleum at Sakkâra; Karnak; Luxor;= Abû Simbel.

B.C. 664 Psametik (Psammetichos) I. First settlement of Greeks in Egypt.

610 Nekau (Necho), Son of Psammetichos. He attempted to reopen Seti I= .'s canal between the Red Sea and the Nile, and sent a fleet to circumnavigate = Africa. He made war against the Assyrians, and defe= ated their ally Josiah, king of Judah, at Megiddo, but was afterwards himself def= eated by Nebuchadrezzar at Carchemis= h.

594 Psammetichos II. An interesting inscription on the shin of one of the statues of Ram= ses II. at Abû Simbel records the purs= uit of Psammetichos, at the head of his Ionian and Karian soldiers, of some native Egyptian troops who had deserted, owing to jealousy of the favour shown to these mercenaries. His reign was short and inglorious.

589 Haa-ab-Ra or Hophra (Apries), Son of Psammetichos II. He went to the assistance of Z= edekiah, when besieged in Jerusalem by Nebuchadrezz= ar, but afterwards allowed the Babylonians to capture the city and put an end to the kingdom of Judaea. During his reign a large n= umber of Jews settled in E= gypt. He was dethroned by one of his generals, Aahmes.

570 Aahmes II. (Amasis). During his lo= ng and prosperous reign Egy= pt regained some of its former splendour. Aahmes allied himself with the Greek= s, and granted them many religious and commercial privileges, among the latter being the removal of the whole of the Mediterranean trade from Tanis, Mendes, and Bubastis to the Greek port of Naukratis, a few miles =

HISTORY. [93]

B.C. 525 below Saïs on the Canopic b= ranch of the Nile. During his reign the Persian Empire was founded by Cyrus, whose son Kambyses advanced against Egypt, = and, having defeated Amasis' son and successor Psammetichos III. at Pelusium, captured Memphis and became master of the country.

XXVII. PERSIAN. B.C. 525.

Oasis of El-Kh= arga; Rocks of Hammamât,

535 Kambyses (Kambujîya, in Egyptian Kambatiet or Kenbutja). This monarch's sway in Egypt is chiefly known by his unsuccessful expeditions against Ethiopia and the Oases, and his violent in tolerance, according to the Greek historians,= of the Egyptian religion, though lately deciphered inscriptions appear to prove the contrary.

521 Darius Hystaspes (Daryavaush, Eg. = Nteriauesh). Showed his reverence = for the Egyptian religion by building a temple to Amon-Ra at the Oasis of El-Kharga; and his desire to promote the prosperity of the country and conciliate the people by endeavouring to reopen the canal between the Red S= ea and the Nile, by re-establishing the route between Koptos and the Red Sea, = by replacing with regular coins the rings and weights which had hitherto done duty as mo= ney, and by appointing a descendant of the old native kings, Amasis, satrap.

484 Xerxes I. (Khshayarsha, Eg. Khshayarsha). The defeat of= the Persians at Marathon by the Greeks encou= raged the Egyptians to revolt under Khabbash, but they were soon reduced to submission and placed under the severe government of Achaemenes, brother of Xerxes.

465 Artaxerxes Makrocheir (Artakashira, Eg= . Artakhshashas). =

The Egyptians again revolted under Inaros= and Amyrtaios, and, aided by the Athenians, were for a time partially successfu= l. During this period Herodotus visited Egypt.

424 Darius Nothos. After continued efforts the Egyptians succeeded in regaining th= eir independence under Amyrtaios, who was recognised as King of Egypt.

XXVIII. SAÏTE. B.C. 415.<= /span>

This dynasty consisted of but one king, Amyrtaios, who only reigned six ye= ars. The Egyptians, however, succeeded in maintaining their independence, and another native king, Naifaarut (Nep= herites), founded a new dynasty.

XXIX. MENDESIAN. B.C. 399.

Medînet = Hâbu.

The duration of this dynasty was short, t= hough it contained five kings - Naifaarut (Nepherites= I.; = Haker (Achoris), who allied himself with Evagoras, tyrant of Salamis, against t= he Persians; Psamut (Psammuthis; Hor-neb-kha= ; and Naifaarut II. It ruled Egypt from Mendes in the Delta, and was succeeded by another race of native princes from the neighbouring town of <= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Sebennytos. <= /o:p>

[94] HISTORY.

XXX. SEBENNYTE. B.C. 378.

Sakkâra;= Karnak; Edfû; Philae.

Nectanebo I. (Nekht-Hor-heb), who founded this dynasty, successfully repelled= the attacks of the Persians, and secured eighteen years' peace and tranquillity= for Egypt; but the attack was renewed during the reign of his successor Tachôs (Tjeho) by Artaxerxes Mnemon, and only repelled through the aid = of the Spartans under Agesilaus. Tachos' son, Nectanebo II. (Nekht-neb-f), after va= rying success, was finally conquered by A= rtaxerxes Ochus, and Egypt= again became a Persian province. Plato visited Egypt during the reign of Nec= tanebo I.

XXXI. PERSIAN. B.C. 340.

The second domination of the Persians in = Egypt w= as of short duration. After Alexander had defeated Darius III. (Kodomannos= ) at the Issus, he marched upon Egypt, and reached Memphis without opposition, the native Egyptians and Greeks welcoming him as a deliverer.

XXXII. MACEDONIAN. B.C. 332.

During his short stay in Egypt Alexander = the Great founded the city of Alex= andria, lie showed his respect for the ancient religion by joining in the worship of Apis, and by going to the Oasis of Ammon to lay his offerings as the "= Son of the Sun" on the altar of Amen-Ra. At his death in 323, and the divi= sion of the various provinces amongst his generals as lieutenants of his titular successor, Philip Arrhidaeos, E= gypt fell to Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, who continued to administer the country = as governor during the lifetime of Arr= hidaeos and the young Alexander AEgus (= B.C. 317). Six years after the murder of the latter by Cassander (B.C. 311), Ptolemy assumed the title of king (B.C. 305).

XXXIII. GREEK or PTOLEMAÏC. B.C. 305= .

Alexandria; Sakkâra; Dendera; Thebes (both sides of the river); Erment; Esna; Edf= û; Kôm Ombo; Philae; Kalabsha; and various other places in Nubia.

B.C. 305 Ptolemy Sôtêr. Though constantly at war, chiefly with Antigonus, for the protection of his kingdom, Ptolemy did not neglect the prosperity of the country, which greatly increased beneath this rule. Learning and the arts a= lso flourished, the foundation of the Museum and Library at Alexandria attracting learned men from = all parts of the world. Ptolemy abdicated two years before his death in 283 in favour of his son.

285 Ptolemy Philadelphos. Continued the wise and beneficent rule of his father. He erected the famous Pharos at Alexandria, f= ounded the cities of Berenikê and Arsinoë on the Red Sea, and reopened = the canal between the Red Sea and the Nile. Manetho's History of Egypt and the Greek translation of the

HISTORY. [95]

Old Testament known as the Septuagint are= said to have been undertaken by Philadelphos' command.

B.C. 247 Ptolemy Euêrgetês I. Conquered the empire the Seleucides and extend= ed his rule over the whole of Asia Minor. <= st1:country-region w:st=3D"on">Egypt h= ad now reached the height of prosperity and power. All the learned and accomplished men of= the day flocked to Ptolemy's court. The decree of Canopus or the stone of Sân was s= et up in the ninth year of his reign.

222 Ptolemy Philopatôr. A cruel and self-indulgent king, under whose ruin Egypt b= egan to decline. He roused himself to meet Antiochus the Great, who had gradually reconquered from Egypt all the pro= vinces of Syria, and defeated= him at the battle of Raphia, a village on the borders of Egypt and Palestine. Founded the Temple of Edfû.=

205 Ptolemy Epiphanes. During the minority of this king internal dissensions, and t= he attacks of Antiochus the Great, induced his guardians to invoke the protect= ion of the Roman Senate, and Egypt henceforth became in reality, though not in name, a Roman province. The Ros= etta Stone belongs to the year 196 B.C. in this reign.

182 Ptolemy Eupator.

181 Ptolemy Philomêtôr. Philometor first reigned alone, and then jointly with his brother, Physkon I., and again alone, Physkon being allott= ed by the Romans Cyrene as a separate kingdom. During the reign of Philometor Egypt recovered a little of its former greatness and prosperity. A Jewish temple = was built at On by Onias, the high-priest of the Jews. On his death his son Pto= lemy Philopator Neos reigned for a few days.

146 Ptolemy Euergetes II. (Physkon). A = cruel tyrant and a debauchee. In 132 the Alexandrians revolted and made Cleopatra, his sister and divorced wife, queen, Physkon retiring to Cyprus.= He recovered his throne in 127. ''Pharaoh's bed" at Philae was built in this reign.

117 Ptolemy Lathyros. The son of Physkon; he first reigned jointly with his mother = Cleopatra Kokko, but was afterwards banished, and his brother, Ptolemy Alexander I., put in his place. Alexander murdered his mother, and was killed himself in a naval battle. Lathyros thon reigned alo= ne. Thebes rebelled a= gainst him and was utterly destroyed.

81 Ptolemy Alexander II. Reigned jointly with his step-mother Berenikê; murd= ered her, and was then killed himself.

81 Ptolemy Auletes XIII. or Neos Dionysos= . An illegitimate son of Lathyros. Was driven from the throne in 58, but rein= stated by Gabinius, the Roman pro-consul in Syria. Diodorus visited Egypt d= uring this reign. The temple of Kôm Ombo w= as finished, and the present temples of Esna and Dendera begun, in this reign.=

51 Cleopatra. Was left by her father Auletes joint heir with her brother Ptolemy XIV., under the guardianship of the Roman Senate. Was exiled. Pompey, seeking ref= uge in Egypt after [48] his defeat at Pharsalia, was murdered with Ptolemy's consent. Ca= esar, after a long struggle, in the course of which Ptolemy [47] was drowned in t= he Nile, reinstated Cleopatra, but gave her

[96] HISTORY.

B.C. 45 us a colleague another brother, P= tolemy XV., whom she murdered. Caesarion, her son by Caesar, was then appointed [4= 4] co-regent. On the death of Caesar, Antony, who had summoned the Queen to Tarsus, to an= swer for having allowed her forces to take the side of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi, fell [42] a victim to her charms, and passed the greater part of = the next nine years with her in idleness. During this time Octavianus (afterwar= ds Augustus) was gradually rising [31] in power, and on the Roman Senate declaring Anton= y an enemy of the State, he marched against Egypt, defeated the combined [30] na= val forces of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium, and took Alexandria. Antony and Cleopatra both committed suicide, and <= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Egypt became a Roman province governed by prefects.

4. Chronologic= al Table from B.C. 30 to A.D. 640.

This includes the period, an uneventful o= ne for Egypt, during which it formed a part first of the Roman Empire as a whole, and then of the Roman Empire of the East. The reign of the Roman em= perors is sometimes reckoned as a XXXIV. Dynasty, their style and title in the hieroglyphic inscriptions being, besides Autokrator, Caesar, Son of the Sun, and King of Upper and Lower Egypt, as in the old da= ys of independence.

B.C. 30 Augustus. Octavianus, in the year 27, became sole ruler of the Roman Empire, under the title of Caesar Augustus. The government of = Egypt w= as given to a prefect, who was always to be of equestrian rank: the first was Cornel= ius Gallus. The Julian year was brought into use and other changes made, but the ancient religion was not interfered with, and inscriptions at Dendera, Philae, and Kalabsha prove that temple-building [24= ] was still carried on. The Ethiopians, under Queen Candace, invaded Egypt, but w= ere repulsed by AElius Gallus, the second prefect, who marched us far as Napata, but did not hold the country, fixing the boundary at Hiera Sykaminos, seven= ty miles, or twelve schoeni, beyond Syene (Aswân), whence that part was called Dodekaschoinos (but see p. [22], ante), Strabo visited Egypt during the prefecture of AElius Gallus.

14 Tiberius. The name of this emperor is found on many Egyptian monuments at Dendera, Thebes, Philae, &c. Germanicus visited Egypt, = going as far as Syênê.

A.D. 37 Gaius (Caligula). During this reign t= he Jews, who formed a large and important part of the population of Alexandria, were persecuted; Philo pleaded their cause against Apion, and Josephus wrote an answer to the latter's attacks upon the Jews and their religion.

41 Claudius. The Jews regained the rights of citizenship taken from them in the last rei= gn. Greek and Roman merchants began to use Egyp= t as a commercial station on the road to Indi= a, going by the old route up the Nile to Koptos, and thence to Berenikê = on the Red Sea. Lake Moeris, owing to the

HISTORY. [97]

A.D. embankments being neglected, began t= o dry up. The name of Claudius is found on many temples.

54 Nero. Christianity is said to have been introduced into Egypt during this reign by St. Mark: according to Eusebius, the first bishop was named Annianus. Constant attacks on the southern frontier were made by the Blemmyes, a tribe of Ethiopian Arabs (probably the modern Bisharîn).

69 Vespasian. Visited Alexandria soon after being procla= imed emperor, and in the following year despatched thence Titus on the expeditio= n against the Jews which ended in the siege and capture of Jerusalem. The <= st1:PlaceType w:st=3D"on">temple of Esna was finished in this reign.

79 Titus. The only trace of his reign is his name on one or two temples. <= /span>

82 Domitian. Juvenal, banished to Syene d= uring this reign, has left some account of the condition of the country, and of i= ts religious superstitions. Domitian encouraged the Egyptian religion by build= ing temples to Isis and Serapis at Rome.

97 Nerva relieved the Jews from the poll-tax they had hitherto paid.

98 Trajan. The Jews revolted at Alexandri= a, but were put down, and the poll-tax restored. The Red Sea and Nile canal wa= s re-opened, starting however from a different point of the river, Babylon above Cairo instead of Bubastis, and was called the Amnis Trajanus. <= /p>
117 Hadrian. Visited Egypt twice. On the first occasion was accompanied by Antinous, who was drowned in the Nile; the emperor built a city near the spot, called Antinoë or An= tinoopolis, some ruins = of which exist opposite Rôda. His empress Sabina was with him when he vi= sited Thebes = some years after; one of her attendants, Julia Balbilla, a would-be poetess, has recor= ded the event on the foot of one of the Colossi. To judge from his letter to Servianus (p. 9), Hadrian had a poor opinion of the Egyptians. <= /span>

138 Antoninus Pius. The survey of all the military roads of the Roman Empire, known as the Itinerary of Antoninus, was made in this reign. It included the roads of Egypt, six in number, of which the two principal were from Babylon opposite Memphis along the east bank of the Mil= e to Contra-Pselkis in Nubia, and from Alexandria along the west bank to Hiera S= ykaminos in Nubia.

161 Marcus Aurelius. The Egyptian legions proclaim Avidius [172] Cassius, who had successfully quelled some revolted Arabs in the Delta, emperor; before, however, the arrival of Aurelius at Alexandria, they repented and put Avidius and his son Maecianus to death. The spread of Christianity is shown by the appointment of three bishops under the Bishop = of Alexandria, who henceforth is styled Patriarch. The first patriarch was Dem= etrius.

194 Pertinax. Niger. The latter had commanded the legions in Egypt employed in repelling t= he incursions of the Saracens as they were already sometimes called, during the reign of Commodus, and was proclaimed emperor by the Egyptians

h

[98] HISTORY.

at the same time as Septimius Severus: was defeated by the latter and killed.

A.D. 196 Septimius Severus. Visited Egypt, and granted several privileges [201] to the Alexandrians. Issued an edict forbidding anyone fr= om becoming a Jew or a Christian. An active persecution followed, during which= the celebrated school of Catechists at Alexandria, which included at that period Pantaenus, Clemens of Alexandria, and Origen,= was broken up. Julius Africanus wrote his work on Chronology.

211 Caracalla. On the occasion of his visit to Egypt he revenged himself on the Alexandria= ns for the jokes they had made at his expense by massacring all the youths of = an age to bear arms, he also took away many of their privileges, and favoured = the native Egyptians, giving some of them a seat in the senate, and cultivating their religion by building a temple in Rome to Isis.

217 Macrinus was declared emperor by the Egyptians on the murder of Caracalla, but he was soon defeated and killed by

218 Elagabalus, whom, however, the Egyptians would not for some time acknowledge, and sanguinary contests took place in Alexandria.

222 Alexander Severus. This reign is chiefly remarkable for having witnessed the foun= dation of the School of Neo-Platonists by Ammonius Saccas,= and his pupils Plotinus and Longinus. Heraclas succeeded Demetrius as patriarch, and increased the number of bishops to twenty. During the civil wars that t= ook place after the death of Alexander, the Egyptians appear to have acknowledg= ed in turn the various pretenders that succeeded one another from 235 to 249. =

249 Decius. The Christians in Eg= ypt were much persecuted in this reign. Last occurrence of the royal name in hi= eroglyphics (p. [140]).

252 Gallus. Egypt was visited by a dreadful plague.

254 Valerian. Another persecution of the Christians took place.

260 Gallienus. On the death of his father Valerian, who was defeated and put to death by S= apor, king of Persia, Gallie= nus associated with himself as emperor Odenathus, king of Palmyra, who, as the ally of Rome, had for a long time guarded its eastern frontier. The Egyptians, however, d= eclared for Macrianus, and, after he ha= d been defeated and killed by Domitian, the general of Gallienus, for AEmilianus Alexander, who met with= the same fate. Gallienus stopped the persecution of the Christians, and accorde= d them full toleration. On the death of Odenathus, his queen Zenobia declared war against Rome, and invaded Egypt, which she claimed as a descendant of Cleopatra; but, though she defeated the Roman army, she did not succeed in gaining Egypt, Claudius being acknowledged emp= eror on the death of Gallienus.

270 Aurelian. On the death of Claudius, Z= enobia renewed her attacks on Egypt, and was for a short time successful, being acknowledged as queen, and grant= ed by Aurelian the rank of his colleague. He soon, however, led his forces aga= inst her.

HISTORY. [99]

and, having defeated her at Emesa, took h= er prisoner to Rome= . Her son Vaballathus was allowed to = rule for a short time, hat was soon deposed and put to death. The Egyptians then set= up Firmus, a Syrian, who established = his court at Koptos and Ptolemaïs, but he likewise was conquered and slain= by Aurelian. Nero, the patriarch, built the church<= /st1:PlaceType> of St. Mary at Alexandria, the first Christian church built in Egypt.

A.D. 276 Probus had been left by Aurelian in command of the army in = Egypt, and continued in that = post during the regency of Aurelian's widow Severina and the short reign of his = son Tacitus. On the death of Tacitus, = the Egyptian legions proclaimed Probus emperor. The Blemmyes, who had obtained possession of Upper Egypt, were reduced = to obedience.

284 Diocletian. Upper Egypt rebelled under Achilleus, and its [292] example was followed by= Alexandria. Diocle= tian himself [296] marched against the rebels, and took Koptos and Busiris. He, = however, resolved to fix the limit of the empire at Elephantinê, and gave up t= he Dodekaschoinos to the Nobatae (the modern Berberines or Nubians). He afterwards besieged and took A= lexandria, and put Achilleus to death. The column [297] known as Pompey's Pillar was erected to commemorate his [304] stepping the pillage of the city by his troops. Issued his famous edict against the Christians, and the persecution which followed was nowhere more severe than in Egypt.

305 Galerius, Maximin, Licinius. These three reigned in the East while Constantine Chl= orus and his son Constantine reigned [312] in the West. The persecution of the Christians was continued. Arius, a presbyter of Alexandria, first broached his heresy, = and the Bible was translated into Coptic during this period. =

328 Constantine the Great. After defeating Licinius near Adrianople, Constantine became sole emperor. The Ch= ristians were released from every civil and religious disability by the emperor, him= self a Christian. In consequence of the disputes as to the nature of Christ betw= een Alexander, patriarch of Alexandria, and Arius, the Emperor, who had been appealed [325] to, summoned the Cou= ncil of Nicaea, where the question whether the Son was of the same or only of similar substance with the Father (homoousios, or homoious= ios) was disputed by Arius as the champion of the latter form of belief, and Ath= anasius, a deacon of Alexandria, of the former. The decision in favour of the Homoousians was embodied in what [328] is known as the Nicene Creed. After = the foundation of Constantinople, = Alexandria began to decline in importance.

337 Constantius at first divided the empire with his two brothers, Constantine II. and Cons= tans, but afterwards reigned alone. He favoured Arianism, and deposed Athanasius,= who had been made bishop of Alexan= dria. After a long struggle George of Cappadocia was elected bishop by the Arians, and the followers of Athanasius were severely persecuted. The monastic syst= em, which had been first started in Egypt

h 2

[100] HISTORY.

at the end of the last century, began now= to assume considerable proportions under the influence and example of St. Antony.

A.D. 361 Julian. Under the patronage of this emperor paganism regained its ascendency for a = short time. George of Cappadocia was murdered by the Alexandrian mob, and Athanas= ius again returned to power, only, however, to be banished again. He was recall= ed by Jovian, but was once more se= nt away by

364 Valens, who, however, afterwards allowed him to return and [373] die in peace at Alexandria. Monas= ticism had now reached its full growth. The Thebaïd and the district of Nitri= a (Wâdi Natrûn) swarmed with hermits and anchorites, living either separately= or in communities. One of the most famous monasteries was that founded by Pachomius and 1400 monks on the island of Tabrana, near De= ndera, where Rufinus afterwards found 3000 monks. The city of Oxyrhynehus, according to the same auth= ority, boasted of 10,000 monks and 20,000 nuns. In Nitria there wore said to be 50= 00 hermits and 50 monasteries.

379 Theodosius I. in his first year issued an edict proclaiming Christianity the religion of the Empire. The temple of Serapis at Alexandria was destroyed, and the old Egyptian religion proscribed.

394 Arcadius. The Roman Empire was divided on the death of Theodosius; Arcadius, the elder son, ruling the East from Constantinople, and Honorius, the younger, the We= st from Rome. Violent disputes took place in Egypt between those who affirmed and those who denied that the Creator was of hum= an form. The former party, who were called Anthropomorphites, led by Theophilu= s, patriarch of Alexandria, attacked and exterminated their opponents.

408 Theodosius II. Cyril succeeded Theophi= lus as patriarch of Alexandria. Hypatia, the daughter of Theon, murdered by [431] the Christians. The doctr= ines of Nestorius are condemned at the C= ouncil of Ephesus, chiefly through the exertions of Cyril. <= /p>
Marcian. The doctrine of Eutyches, t= hat Christ possessed but one nature, the divine, and was in no respect human, i= s [451] condemned by the Council of Chalced= on. The decision was rejected by the Egyptian Church, which adher= ed to the monophysite doctrine of Eutyches. Upper Egypt was overrun by the Nobatae or Nubians in this reign; Silko, their king, has= [453] recorded his victories at Kalabsha. An inscription at Philae shows that the worship of Isis and Serapis was still practised more than seventy yours after the edict of Theodosius.

457 Leo. Leo the Younger.

474 Zeno. In order to put a stop to the quarrels between the two parties in the Churc= h, and the continual struggles between the patriarchs of Alexandria nominated = by the emperor and [482] those who had been chosen by the people, the emperor issued an edict, called the Henotic= on, affirming the doctrine of the Incarnation, without, however, defining the question of a double or single nature. Like most attempts at a compromise, = it proved a failure.

HISTORY. [101]

A.D. 491 Anastasius. The Persians invaded Egypt; their retreat was [501] followed by a famine.

518 Justin I.

527 Justinian. A final separation took place between the Orthodox or Melchite party and the Monophysites or Jacobites, who were afterwards called Copts. Each had its patriarch. The convents of St. Catherine at Mount Sinai and of St. Paul and St. Antony in the desert near the Red Sea were built probably as fortresses to repel the attacks of = the Arabs.

566 Justin II. Tiberius II. Mauricius, Phocas.

610 Heraclius. The Persians under Chosroos invaded Egypt and [618] hold it for t= en years, but, weakened by the rising of their Arab [622] allies in the year of the Hijra or Flight of Mahomet, they were driven out by Heraclius. He in his turn soon had to make terms with the followers of Mohammed, who, however, overran Svria, and, entering Egypt, rapidly made themselves masters of the country, the capture of Alexandria by 'Amr or 'Amm marking the end of the R= oman rule over Egypt.

5. Chronologic= al Table from A.D. 640 to the Present Day.

This may be called the Mohammedan period.= Egypt a= ccepted the religion of its Arab conquerors, and henceforth formed a part of the kingdom of the Khalîfs. Its history during this period is generally devoid of interest.

A.D. 641 'Omar. The general 'Amr Ibn el'Asi ent= ered Egypt in 639 by way of Pelusium, and advanced up the country to Memphis; th= ence, after taking the fortress of Babylon, near the present Cairo, he marched to Alexandria, of which he became master after a siege of fourteen months. On = the date of his entry into the city - Friday, December 10, 641, the first day of the Muhammedan month Muharram, and the New Year's day of the twentieth year= of the Hijra - Egypt ceased to be a Roman [642] province. 'Amr founded Fustât (Old Cairo), and the mosque there which bears his name, and restored the canal between the Nile and the Red Sea.

644 'Othmân. Conquest of Africa begun by 'Abdallah ibn Sa'ad, who had replaced 'Amr as governor of Egypt.

656 'Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed, maintained a constant struggle for the Khal&ici= rc;fate with Moâwiyeh. Assassinated 661.

OMAYYADE DYNASTY.

661 Moâwiyeh. After the death of 'Ali, and the abdication of his son Hasan, Moâwiyeh obtained undisputed possession of the Khalîfate, and founded the dyna= sty of the Omayyades, which reigne= d for nearly 100 years. Constantinople was besieged b= y the Arabs without success.

680 Yezîd I., son of Moâwiyeh. Husê= ;n, 'Ali's second son, assuming the title of Khalîf, is defeated and kill= ed at Kerbela.

[102] HISTORY.

A.D. 683 Moâwiyeh II., son of Yezîd, abdicated after a reign of six months, when

684 Marwân I., also of the family of 'Omayya, w= as elected Khalîf, and reigned a year.

685 'Abd el-Melek, son of Marwân, completed the conquest of Africa. 'Abd el-Azîs, his brother, made a Nilometer at Helwân, near Cairo. First pure= ly Arab coinage struck in gold and silver.

705 El-Welîd, son of 'Abd el-Melek. Built first Nilometer at the [710] island of Rôd= a. Spain conquered by the Moslems; and India invaded by them.

715 Sulêmân, brother of El-Welîd; 'Omar II= ., son of 'Abd el-Azîz; Yezîd II., son of 'Abdel-Melek; Hishâm, brother of 'Abdel-Me= lek, [727-743] during whose reign the Saracens under 'Abd er-Rahmân were defeated by= Charles Martel; El-Welîd II., son= of Yesîd; Yesîd III. a= nd Ibrâhîm, sons of El-We= lîd II., followed one another in quick succession.

744 Marwân II., grandson of Marwâ= n I., and last of the Omayyades. He= was defeated by Abû'l-'Abbas, and killed at Abûsîr el-Melek in the Fayyûm (p. 303).

ABBÂSIDE DYNASTY.=

750 Abu'l-'Abbâs, a descendant of 'Abbâs, an uncle of Mohammed's. Founded the dynasty o= f the Abbâsdes, and put to dea= th all the descendants of Marwân I., with the exception of 'Abd er-Rahmân, who escaped and established the Omayyade dynasty at Cordova in Spain.

754 El-Mansûr, brother of 'Abbâs. Founded Baghdad, and made it [762] the capital of the Abbâside Khalîfs.

775 El-Mahdî Mohammed; El-Hadî Mû= ;sa. Sons of El-Mansûr.

786 Hârûn er-Rashîd, also a son of El-Mansûr. The famous hero of Arab= ian tales. Towards the end of his reign Ibrâhîm Ibn [800] el-Aglab, governor of Egypt, declared himself independent, and founded the Aglabide dynasty, of which the cap= ital was Kuirwan, = 70 miles south of Tunis. The kingdom of Fez was also founded by the Edr= îsides in this reign.

809 El-Amîn, son of Hârû= ;n.

813 El-Mamûn, son of Hârûn. A great encourager of arts and sciences, particul= arly astronomy. Visited E= gypt and patronised the learned men there. Caused Arabic translations of Greek authors to be made. Opened the Great Pyramid in the hope of finding treasur= e.

833 El-Mutasim, brother of Mamûn. El-Wâthik (Beckford's "= Vathok"), [846] son of El-Mutasim. Rome<= /st1:place> attacked by the Saracens.

857 El-Mutawekkil, brother of Wâthik. Built the Nilometer at the = Island of Rôd= a, now existing.

861 El-Muntasir, son of Mutawekkil. El'Mustaîn. El-Mutezz.

TÛLÛNIDE DYNASTY.<= /span>

868 Ahmad ibn-Tûlûn. Governor= of Egypt. Usurps the sovereignty of the country, and founds the dynasty of the T&ucir= c;lûnides. Added the suburb of el-Khatîya to Fustât, and built the

HISTORY. [103]

A.D. 878 mosque that bears his name. Arab writers celebrate his wealth, magnificence, and warlike successes.

883 Khumârawêyh. Built a palace at Fustât.

895 Abû'l-Asâkir: Harûn. Sons of Khamâ= ;rawêyh. Shêban, son of Ahmad. Wit= h him the dynasty ends.

ABBÂSIDE GOVERNORS restored.

905 El-Muktafi. Egypt subject to the Khalîfs. Khatîya burnt.

908 El-Muktaddir. During this reign 'Obêdallah el-Mahdi usurped the government of Eastern Africa, and founded the dynasty of

909 the Fâtimide Khalîfs in <= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tunis. He invade= d Egypt, = but was defeated by Muktaddir.

932 El-Kâhir.

934 Er-Râdi.

IKHSHÎDIDE DYNASTY.

935 Mohammed el-Ikhshîd. Usurps the government of Egypt.

940 Abû'l-Kasim; Abû'l-Hasan, Sons of Moha= mmed.

966 Kâfûr; a black slave. Abû'l-Faw&acir= c;ris, son of Abû'l-Hasan.

FÂTIMIDE DYNASTY.=

969 El-Mu'izz, great-grandson of 'Obêdallah, the founder of the Fâtimide dynas= ty in Tunis= . Sent Gohar with an army to [969] invade Egypt, which he took. Built t= he city of El-Kâhira [973] (Cairo), and transferred the seat of gov= ernment there.

975 El-'Azîz. Encouraged learning and science. Converted the mosque of El-Azhar at Cairo, which had b= een built by Gohar, into a university.

996 El-Hâkim succeeded his father El-'Azîz at 10 years old. Believed himself to be= an incarnation of the Deity, and in conjunction [990] with Ed-Derazi and Hamzeh founded the sect of the Druses. He persecuted the Christians and plundered their churches. Many of the Christians turned Mussulmans. Built the [1012] = mosque of El-Hâkim at Cairo. Was assassinated at the instigation, it is said, of his sister. The followe= rs of his sect, however, believe that he was withdrawn from the world, and tha= t he will reappear as the Mahdi or l= ast Imâm, to receive the adoration of all mankind (see p. [35]).
1021 Edh-Dhâhir, son of Hâkim.

1036 El-Mustansir, son of Dhâhir. The Turcomans, who had been gradually rising in power since 980, attack Eg= ypt, but are repulsed. In his reign the king of Abyssinia is said to have stopped the waters of the Nile (as retaliation for the persecution of Christians in= Egypt),= until the Coptic patriarch prayed him to cut the dam. Fustât began to decay. El-Mustansir rebuilt the three chief gates of Cairo.

1094 El-Musta'ali, son of Mustansir. Takes Jerusa= lem and other [1098] Syrian towns from the Turks; but is immediately deprived [= 1099] of them by the Crusaders, under Godfrey de Bouillon.

1011 El-'Amir. El-Hâfiz. Edh-Dhâhir, El-Fâïz.

1160 El-'Adid. Tito intrigues of Shâwar and Dirghâm for the office of Vizier b= ring about the dissolution of the dynasty. The

[104] HISTORY.

former is assisted by Nûr-ed-d&icir= c;n, the ruler of Aleppo, with Kurdish troops under Salâh-ed-dîn (Saladin), but afterwards quarrels with them and drives them out of Egypt w= ith the assistance of Amalric (Amaury), king of Jerusalem, who in his turn ende= avours to gain possession of Egypt, and penetrates to Cairo, but Fustât is b= urnt on his approach and he is compelled to retreat, the Kurds being again called in. Shirkûh, a Kurd, becomes Vizier, and afterwards Salâh-ed-d&= icirc;n.

AYYÛBIDE DYNASTY.=

A.D. 1169 Yûsuf Salâh-ed-din (Saladin). On the death of 'Adid, Saladin usurped th= e sovereignty and founded the Ayyûbide dynasty of Kurds. He afterwards obtained possession of Syria<= /st1:place> on the [1187] death of Nûr-ed-dîn. Defeated the Crusaders at th= e battle of Hattîn, overthrew= the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, and [1189] retook that = city. Successfully repulsed the Third Cr= usade under Frederick Barbarossa, Philip Augustus, and Richard [1191] Coeur de Li= on. Began the citadel and walls of Cairo.

1193 El'Azîz, second son of Saladin.

1198 El-Mansûr, son of 'Azîz; a child.

1200 El-'Adil, brother of Saladin. Usurps the throne.

1218 El-Kâmil, son of El-'Adil. The Crusaders (Fifth Crusade) penetrate into Egypt and tak= e Damietta, but are obliged to [1219] abandon it after being defeated at a spot where El-Kâmil was building a now city, which he called Mansûra (the = [1228] Victorious). The Emperor Frederick II. also obtains possession of Jerusalem and othe= r Syrian towns. El-Kâmil endeavoured, according to the Arab historians, to demolish the Third Pyramid.

1238 El-'Adil II., son of El-Kâmil.

1239 Es-Sâlih Ayyûb, brother of El-'Adil. Louis IX. (St. Louis) [1249] of France, at the he= ad of the Sixth Crusade, captures Damietta, but is taken prisoner at Mans&ucir= c;ra, while marching on Cairo, and only released on the evacuation of Damietta and the payment of 100,000 pieces of gold.

1249 El-Muazzam (Tûrân-Shâh),= son of Sâlih. Murdered by his father's Mamelukes.

1250 Shegeret ed-Durr, widow of Sâlih. Married the Mameluke Êbek in 1250,= who became Sultan conjointly with the minor El-Âshraf. =

1250 El-Âshraf. Deposed (1252) by the Mameluke Êbek.

BAHARIDE MAMELUKE SLAVE DYNASTY.

1250 El-Mu'izz Ebek et-Turkomâni. Marries Shegeret-ed-Durr, and is killed by her from jealousy.

1257 El-Mansûr Ali, son of Mu'izz.

1259 El-Mudhaffer Kutuz. Recovers = Syria from the Tartars.

1260 Edh-Dhâhir Bêbars. Succeeds to the throne after assassinating Mudhaffer. Rep= els a fresh invasion of the Tartars in Syria, takes Damascus, and extends his conquests = over a great part of Armeni= a. Brings the representative of the Abbâside

HISTORY. [105]

Khalîfs, El-Hâkim, who had been dethroned by the Mongols, to Egypt, = find recognises him as nominal Khalîf. From this period until the taking of Egypt by Sultan Selîm, the Abbâ= ;side Khalîfs held nominal spiritual sway in Egypt.

A.D. 1268 Built mosque outside Cairo which bears his name. Death [1270= ] of St. Louis before Tunis.

1277 Es-Sa'îd Baraka; El-'Adil Selâmish= . Sons of Bêbars.

1279 El-Mansûr Kalaûn. Continued the warlike enterprises of Bêbars' by defeating the Mongolians at Homs, recoveri= ng Damascus, which had been again lost, capturing Tripoli, &c. A= t home his reign was celebrated by alternate acts of cruelty and beneficence. In o= ne of his fits of anger he delivered up Cairo to sword and plunder for three days. In the eyes of native historians the g= ood acts of his reign have outweighed the evil. In modern Cairo his name is handed down as that [= 1284] of a great physician. Founded the Mûristân and mosque at Cairo. =

1290 El-Âshraf Khalîl, son of Kalaûn. Takes Acre from the [1292] Christians. The Khan Khalîli at Cairo built.

1293 En-Nâsir Muhammad, son of Kalaûn. Succeeds at nine [1294] years old. Is dethroned by Ketbogha, who usur= ps the sceptre, but is in his turn overthrown by El-Mansûr Lagin.

1299 On the assassination of the latter, = Nâsir is restored. After ten years, however, he is again deposed, and Bêbars Gâshenkîr= proclaimed in his stead. Nâsir again returns, and, with the help of the Syrian A= mîrs with whom he had taken refuge [1310] at Karak on the Dead Sea, regains the throne. The Arab historians celebrate him as a powerful and wealthy monarch, whose territories extended from Tunis to Baghdad, and who greatly increased the prosperity and well-being of Egypt by making and restoring canals, encouraging agriculture, and fostering the arts. Cairo was greatly extended and embellished 1318 by him. He built the mosque of N&acir= c;sir in the Citadel and the Nabassîn.

1341 Seven sons of Nâsir followed h= im in quick succession - El-Mansûr = Abû-Behr; El Âshraf Kûgûk; En-Nâsir Shihâb-ed-Dî= ;n; Es-Sâlih Ismaîl; El-Kâmil Shaabân; El-Mudhaffer; and

1347 Sultan Hasan, a minor at the time of his accession; he was deposed by Es-Sâlih, but recovered his = throne three years later. During the interval a fearful plague devastated [1351] <= st1:country-region w:st=3D"on">Egypt. = Built the mosque at Cairo= which bears his name.

1357 Was again dethroned and assassinated= .

1361 El-Mansûr Muhammad, grandson of Nâsir.

1363 El-Âshraf Shaabân, great grandson of Nâsir. Ordered the Sherîfs= or descendants of Mohammed to wear green turbans.

1365 Peter de Lusignan, king of Cyprus, besieges Alexandria, but fails.

1376 El-Mansûr 'Ali. Es-Sâlih Haggi,= the last of the dynasty.

[106] HISTORY.

CIRCASSIAN OR BURGIDE MAMELUKE SLAVE DYNA= STY.

A.D. 1382 Edh-Dhâhir Barkûk. A Circassian slave, who deposed Haggi and usurped the thr= one. Was dethroned by the Amîrs, but [1393] regained his power the followi= ng year. He built the mosque of Barkûk.

1399 En-Nâsir Farag, son of Barkûk. Was engaged in continual [1405] warfare with the Tartars, whom he finally defeats, and in putting down repeated revolts = of the turbulent Mamelukes. Built tomb-mosque of Barkûk.

1412 El-Mu'ayyad. Many sumptuary laws enacted against the Christians and Jews. Revolts in Syria successfully put [1420] down. Built the mosque known by his name at Cairo. =

1421 El-Mudhaffer Ahmad. Edh-Dhâhir Tat&aci= rc;r. Es-Sâlih Muhammad. <= /o:p>

1422 El-Âshraf Bursbey. Attacked Cyprus and took the king, John III., prisoner, but released him on the promise of = an annual tribute. Concluded a peace with the Tartars. Gained possession of Je= ddah, the port = of Mecca, and monopolised the Indian = trade there.

1438 El-'Azîz Yûsuf. Edh-Dhâhir G= akmak.

1453 El-Mansûr 'Othmân. El-Âshraf = Inâl. Constantinople taken by the Turks. =

1461 El-Mu'ayyad Ahmad. Edh-Dhâhir Kh&ocir= c;thkadum.

1467 Edh-Dhâhir Bilbey. Edh-Dhâhir Timurbogha.

1468 El-Âshraf Kâit Bey. Elected by the Amîrs. After a successful war agai= nst the Turks under Sultans Mahmûd and [1490]Bâyazid (Bajazet), K&a= circ;it Bey concluded a treaty of peace with them. = Cyprus taken by the Venetians, who, however, continued to pay the tribute to Egypt. = Is compelled by the riotous Mamelukes to abdicate in favour of his son. There = are numerous monuments of his reign in Cairo.

1496 En-Nâsir Muhammad. Edh-Dhâhir Khan= sûweh.

1499 El-Âshraf Gânbalât. El-'Adil = Tûmân Bey.

1501 El-Ghûri Khansûweh. Was over 60 years of age when chosen [1508] to succeed= Tûmân. Built the mosque and schools at Cairo that bear his name, and rebuilt in stone Saladin's wooden aqueduct. Encoura= ged learning. Fitted out an expedition against the Portuguese in order to injure their trade with India= by the Cape route. Entered into corresponde= nce with the Doge of Venice with the view of making the = Suez Canal. Was defeated by the Turks under Sel= îm I. near Aleppo, and slain.

1516 El-Âshraf Tûmân Bey, nephew of Ghûri. After the defeat and deat= h of Ghûri, Selîm advanced on Egypt<= /st1:country-region>, and, after defeating Tûmân at Heliopolis<= /st1:City>, entered Cairo. Tûmân was taken and hanged outside the Bab ez-Zuwêla. With him [1517] ended= the Mameluke dynasty, and Egypt became a Turkish Pashalik.

Though Selim abolished the monarchy, he left the aristocracy of the Ma= melukes un certain conditions; the chief of which were - annual tribute, obedience = in matters of faith to the

HISTORY. [107]

decisions of the Mufti of Constantinople,= and the insertion of the name of the Sultan of the Osmanlis in the public prayers and on coins. Selîm also compelled the last scion of the Abbâside Khalî= fs, El-Mutawekkil, to leave Cairo and [A.D. 15= 43] reside at Constantinople; and at his death the = Sultans of Constantinople assumed the title of Khalîf.

The history of Egypt f= or the next 250 years is almost entirely without interest. The Turkish Pashas who nominally governed the country soon became subordinate to the Mameluke [176= 7] Beys, one of whom, 'Ali Bey, declared= himself independent, conquered Arabia and Syria, and allied himself with Russia against the Turks. At his death his son-in-law, Abû-Dahab, [1773] was recognised by the Sultan as ruler o= f Egypt. = The chief power after Abû-Dahab's death was shared by Murâd Bey and Ibr= âhîm Bey, who opposed

1798 Napoleon Buonaparte when he landed at Alexandria (July 1) for the purpose of occupying Egypt. They were defeated, ho= wever, at the battle of the Pyramids (July 21), and Napoleon entered Cairo. Immediately after (Aug. 1), the = French fleet was destroyed by Nelson at the battle of the N= ile. Napoleon, after completely breaking the power of the Mamelukes, left Egypt on his Syrian expedition, and on his return to France [1799] appointed General Kléber= as commander in Egypt. Kléber [1800] signed the convention of El-Arîsh (Jan. 24), for= the evacuation of Egypt by= the French; but the convention being broken, he marched on Cairo, defeated the Turks at Heliopol= is (March 21), and retook the city. He was assassinated (June 14), and General Menou succeeded to the com= mand. The French were defeated by the English under Sir Ralph [1801] Abercromby at the battle of Alexandria (March 21), and d= riven out of Egypt.

After the French occupation,= Egypt once more fell a prey to the Mamelukes and anarchy, till the Porte appointe= d

1806 Mohammed 'Ali, a Roumelian, born at Kavala in 1768, Pasha [1811] of Egypt. He established his pow= er by the massacre of all the Mameluke Beys in the Citadel of Cairo. Various expeditions, under his sons Tûsûm and Ibrâhîm Pasha, were undertaken against the Wahhâbis in Arabia, and the countries bordering the Nile as far as Khartû= ;m, which he founded. He also endeavoured to ameliorate the condition of the country by making now canals and embankments, improving [1823] the system o= f agriculture, founding schools, and introducing [1831] various forms of European civilisation. During the Greek war he sent troops to aid the Turks, but soon afterwards declared himself independent of the Porte and invaded Syria, = which was quickly overrun by the Egyptians under his son [1832] Ibrâhî= ;m, and the Turkish army totally destroyed at Kônîyeh (Iconinm). By= the intervention of the European Powers [1833] his victorious career was stoppe= d, and a peace signed at Kutâlilya in which he acknowledged the suzerain= ty of the [1839] Porte. The war again breaking out, Ibrâhîm defeat= ed the Turks at Nezib and menaced Constantinople, but was compelled to quit Syria b= y the European Powers. Mohammed

[108] HISTORY.

A.D. 1841 'Ali then acknowledged the suze= rainty of the Porte, and in return the Sultan 'Abd ul-Mejîd made the governm= ent of Egypt hereditary in his family, subject to the payment of an annual tribute. Owin= g to his mind failing, Mohammed 'Ali resigned, and was succeeded by

1848 Ibrâhîm, his son, who died after reigning 4 months.

1849 'Abbâs, son of Tûsûm and grandson of Mohammed 'Ali. Soon after his succ= ession his grandfather died, August 2, 1849. A cruel and avaricious ruler, who was murdered by his own slaves.

1854 Sa'îd, son of Mohammed 'Ali. Endeavoured to carry on the work of reform and progre= ss begun by his father. Completed the railway from Alexa= ndria to Cairo, and supported the scheme for mak= ing the Suez Canal, which was begun in his r= eign. Encouraged the discovery and preservation of the [1859] old monuments of the country, and founded the Bûlâk [1861] Museum. Visited England. Died Jan. 18, 1868.

1863 Ismaîl, son of Ibrâhîm and grandson of Mohammed 'Ali. Born Dec. 31, 183= 0. Continued the work of progress and reform by constructing railways, canals, harbours, and telegraphs, [1866] organising a postal system, increasing the= number of schools, &c. Obtained from the Porte, in return for additional tribu= te, the right of succession to his children in the direct [1867] line, and the title of Khedive. Visited England July, 1867. [1869] The Suez Canal opened= Nov. 19, 1869. Completion of the [1871] docks at Suez. The new harbour and quays at Alexandria begun. = The Khedive obtains a firman from the Porte [1873] granting him further privile= ges, and rendering him almost independent, those concessions being paid for by a= fresh addition to the tribute, which was raised to nearly £700,000. [1875] = Suez Canal shares purchased by the British Governme= nt under Mr. Disraeli. Owing to the rapidly increasing debt of the country, which threatened insolvency, the revenue and [1876] expenditure were placed under= the control of a commission, [1878] chiefly European. The Khedive surrendered h= is private estates towards meeting the requirements of the debt, and consented= to the appointment of an English Minister of [1879] Finance (Mr. Rivers Wilson) and a French Minister of Public Works (M. de Blignières). These, however, he soon dismissed, as well as the members of the Financial Commiss= ion. The European Governments in consequence required the Porte to dethrone him.=

1879 Tewfik, eldest son of Ismaîl, succeeded on the deposition of his father.

1880 Appointment of the Commission of Liquidation to prepare a law for the settlement of the Egyptian debt. =

1881 Military Revolt. In December the Cha= mber of Notables expressed a wish to examine the Egyptian budget. This was refus= ed, and the so-called National movement commenced, with 'Arabi Pasha as leader = and head of the army.

1882 The situation became more strained. = On the 20th May the French and English fleets entered Alexandria. On the 11th June Europeans = were massacred by the natives. On the 11th July the forts of Alexandria were bombarded by the <= /o:p>

HISTORY. [109]

English fleet. This was followed by the invasion of Egypt by an English army and the occupation of Cairo on the14th September. 'Arabi Pasha and other rebellious colonels were banis= hed to Ceylon. Mission= of Lord Dufferin. Abo= ut the same time the rebellion in the Sudan became serious.

A.D. 1883 Hicks Paeha was defeated in Kor= dofan, and a force was sent under Baker Pasha to Suâkin. In December the Eng= lish Government required the Khedive to abandon the whole of the Sudan.

1884 Shérif Pasha refused to compl= y, and was succeeded by Nubar Pasha as Prime Minister. An English expedition was s= ent to Suâkin, which defeated the rebels near that place and returned to = Cairo. General Go= rdon was sent to Khartûm. In August it was decided to send an English expediti= on up the Nile to assist Gordon.

1885 The English force having failed to a= rrive in time, Khartûm fell on the 26th January, and Gordon was killed. The whole Sudan was then given up from Wâdi Halfa to the South. Mission of Sir H. Drummond Wolff to Constantinople and Cairo. First Turkish convention. <= /o:p>

1886 Reforms carried out in Egypt u= nder English officials. The English troops remain in occupation.

1887 Sir H. Drummond Wolff concluded a se= cond convention with the Porte respecting the occupation of Egypt, but the Sultan decline= d to sign it.

1888-1891 The English occupation continue= d, but the number of English troops reduced. Reforms carried out under English officials. Interest on debt reduced. Finances steadily improved. Taxation lightened. Forced labour (corv&eacu= te;e) abolished. Judicial reforms of effected.

1892 Tewfik died Jan. 7th after a few day= s' illness, and was succeeded by his son 'Abba= s II. Hilmi.

1896 Expedition into the Sudan to break the power of t= he Khalîfa, under Sir H. H.= Kitchener. Dongola taken on Sept. 23, after fights at Firket (June 7) and Hafir (Sept. 19).

1897 Desert Railway from Wâdi Halfa= to Abu Hamed begun, in order to take the Dervishes in flank. General Hunter advanced to Abu Hamed and took it (Aug. 7), afterwards occupying Berber (Se= pt. 13). On Oct. 31 the railway reached Abu Hamed.

1898 On April 8 the Sirdar (Sir H. H. Kitchener) attacked and captured the Dervish works on the further bank of t= he Atbara. The Dervish loss was about 3000 killed; and= 2000, including their leader, Mahmûd, were taken prisoners. Later in the ye= ar the Anglo-Egyptian army, which included two English infantry brigades, under Generals Gatacre and Wauchope (afterwards killed at Magersfontein), a caval= ry regiment (21st Lancers), and three batteries of artillery (one field, one howitzer, one siege), advanced southwards and engaged the whole Dervish arm= y, under the personal command of the Khalîfa, north of Omdurmân (S= ept. 2). The Khalîfa's army of 50,000 men was annihilated; 11,000 were kil= led and 16,000 wounded: the Khalîfa escaped. Omdurman and Khartûm were solemnl= y reoccupied on Sept. 4, and the Mahdi's tomb destroyed, his

[110] HIEROGLYPHS.

body burnt and thrown into the Nile. This was done because, had the body and tomb remained, they would have become a focus of religious fanaticism and sediti= on. On Sept. 19 the Sirdar hoisted the Egyptian flag at Fashoda, which had been occupied by a French force under Col. Marchand, sent from the Ubangi to obtain a footing for France in the Upper= Nile valley. This incident, which nearly led to war between England and France, was settled by the French evacuating their post, and the treaty which ensued guaranteed the possession of the Bahr el-Ghazal to Egypt, and determined the spheres of influence of = England and France. The status of the Sudan was reconstituted on a basis of joint occupation by England and Egypt. The two

flags fly side by side in the Sudan.

On September 22 Godaref, the= last Dervish stronghold, was occupied by the force of Col. Parsons after three h= ours of very severe fighting.

On December 23 the Dervishes= were defeated by Sir C. Parsons

at Rosaires, 250 miles south of Khart&uci= rc;m.

A.D. 1899 On Nov. 21 Col. (now Gen. Sir F.) Wingat= e, who had succeeded Sir H. Kitchener as Sirdar, defeated the Khalîfa at Umm= Debrêkat. The Khalîfa and his emîrs wore killed. Kordofân recovered= .

1900 Osman Digna captured. Slatin Pasha a= ppointed British inspector of the Sudan.

1902 Epidemic of cholera in Egypt.

1903 Aswân Dam completed.

1904 Friendly arrangement between England and France, by which the control of Egyptian finances is assured to England, and the country plac= ed under British protection in everything but the name.

1906 Suâkin-Berber railway opened. =

Tabah dispute with Turkey. Frontier of Sinai delimited.

Affray between natives and British office= rs at Denshwai.

1907 Resignation of Lord Cromer.

XI. HIEROGLYPHS.

1. The Languag= e of the Hieroglyphs.

After having baffled for centuries the at= tempts of savants to translate it, the language of the hieroglyphs is no longer a sealed book. Yet scholars are still at a loss to know where to place Ancient Egyptian in the family of languages.

It seems probable that it is a composite language, partly of indigenous Nilotic and partly of proto-Semitic origin. = The resemblance to the Semitic tongues not only in construction nut in definite= locutions (e.g., the personal pronouns) is not close enough to enable us to class Egy= ptian definitely as a Semitic language; very probably it is a connecting-link bet= ween the true Semitic family of tongues and the languages of the Berbers (Kabyle= s, Tuâreg or Imôshagh, &c.) of Libya, which seem distantly rel= ated both to Semitic and to Ancient Egyptian. There is certainly in it also a su= bstratum of non-Semitic origin, which probably belongs to the tongue of the primitive inhabitants. Of Aryan (Indo-European) roots there is in Egyptian no trace whatever.

HIEROGLYPHS. [111 ]

$$$ The language naturally did not remain= the same during the 3000 or 4000 years in which it was used. Therefore for practical purposes students have divided it into Old Egyptian, Middle Egypt= ian, and New Egyptian, being the different forms need during the so-called Old, Middle, and New Empires. The language of the Middle Empire is usually taken= as the standard or classical tongue. This, which was the spoken living tongue = of the Amenemhats and Usertsens, was still preserved for epigraphic and chance= ry purposes under the Amenhoteps and Thothmos; the real spoken tongue of the X= VIII. Dynasty was first admitted on the monuments in the time of the reforming ki= ng Khu-n-aton (p. [78]). Under the XIX. Dynasty the spoken and literary languages again coincided, as they had under the XII. The process of phonetic decay and neologistic innovation still went on, and the language written m the Demotic character was a further development, of which Coptic is a survival. The las= t, which was spoken by the Copts, or Egyptian Christians, is now only used, and that infrequently, in the Coptic churches. Its alphabet consists of the Gre= ek letters with the addition of five or six letters borrowed from the Demotic.= A knowledge of Coptic is of great help, if not indeed a necessity to the stud= ent of hieroglyphs.

2. Method of W= riting.

It was to the god Thoth that the Egyptians attributed the invention of the princi= ples of writing, that form of picture characters that remained the same during thousands of years. But the language of the hieroglyphs died with the independence of the Egyptians, and soon after 300 A.D. the knowledge of the characters was completely lost. Many attempts were made both in mediaeval a= nd modern times to find a clue to their decipherment, and the most absurd gues= ses were made at the translation of texts. Every reference to the hieroglyphs m= ade by classic authors was carefully examined, but the writings of late Egyptian, = Greek, and Roman authors, such as Horapollo, Hermapion, Clement of Alexandria, &am= p;c., served rather to mislead than to help scholars. A small step was made in 17= 97 when Zoëga came to the conclusion that cartouches contained royal name= s. But though many learned men gave their attention to hieroglyphs, little advance= had been made in the study when in 1799 the Rosetta Stone was found with its trilingual inscription - Hieroglyphic, Demotic, and Greek placed one beneath the other (see p. 29). The Orientalist, Silves= tre de Sacy, and a Swede, named Akorblad, did some good work on the Demotic tex= t of the inscription, the work of the latter affording much help to Dr. Thomas Young, who in Englan= d was studying the hieroglyphic and Demotic texts. A number of alphabetic sig= ns were identified by him, and he communicated the result of his labours to the world in his Account of Some Recent= Discoveries in Hieroglyphical Literature (London: Murray, 1823). His discoveries communicated inspiration to Francois Champollion, surnamed le Jeune, to who= m is due the credit of the discovery that the signs wore partly phonetic and par= tly ideographic, without which knowledge all attempts at lengthy translation wo= uld have resulted in failure. It was by comparing two cartouches that in the fi= rst place he was able confidently to fix the

[112] HIEROGLYPHS

value of certain signs. One was known by comparison with the Greek text to contain the name of Ptolemy, and the other was supposed to contain that of Cleopatra. In these two names there are four similar letters, = and so, four similar signs being found in the two cartouches, it was a comparatively easy matter to determine the value of the remaining signs.

After this Champollion gradually worked o= ut an alphabet and syllabary, and published his Grammaire Égyptienne in 1836-41. There were at first many opponents to the= now system, but gradually all others were found to be useless, and all later st= udy of hieroglyphs has its roots in the work of Young and Champollion.

Following this great leader were Dr. Birc= h and Dr. Hincks in England,= Prof. Lepsius and Dr. Brugsch in Germany, and M. Emmanuel de Rougé in France. Soon the number of sc= holars increased, and among the men who have more recently turned their attention = to the subject and who have done much to further the advance of the study in England may be mentioned the late Sir P. le Page Renouf , Mr. Goodwin, and Prof. Lushington, and now Dr. E. A. Wallis Budge and Mr. F. Ll. Griffith; i= n France,= the late MM. Chabas and Devéria, and now Prof. Maspero, MM. Pierrot, Rev= illout, and J. de Rougé; in Switzerland, Prof. Naville; in Italy, Signori Ro= ssi and Schiaparelli; in Germany, the late Dr. Dümichen, and now Profs. Wi= edemann, Erman, Schäfer, Steindorff, Spiegelberg, and Kurt Sethe; in Sweden, the late Prof. Piebl; and in Russia, MM. Golénistchev and Turayev. Most of these authorities differ on mi= nor points, and the Germans affect an algebraic transliteration which is suppos= ed by them to give more strictly scientific results; but the differences are n= ot sufficient to make any but very small discrepancies between the translation= s of texts given by the several scholars. The foundations of the science are firm and fixed, and any translation of an Egyptian text by a competent scholar w= ith proper credentials (not an irresponsible amateur or a "crank" afflicted with fads) is certain and reliable, and will be found to differ i= n no important respect from a translation by any other competent scholar. <= /o:p>

The language of the ancient Egyptians is = found written in three forms, in hieroglyphs, hieratic, and demotic. The hierogly= phs cure essentially a lapidary system, though they are found, in a somewhat modified form called linear hierogl= yphs, painted on coffins, &c. From these linear hieroglyphs the more fluent hieratic was developed, which thus= bears the same relation to the carved hieroglyphs that our handwriting bears to print. Champollion in his Grammaire= Égyptienne gives drawings showing very clearly the derivation of the hieratic from the hieroglyphs. Demotic is such a degenerate form of hieratic that it is extremely difficult to rood it, and = in all Europe there are but very few schola= rs who can decipher documents written in this script. The earliest hieroglyphs, su= ch as those at Mêdûm, are drawn in full detail and coloured naturally= , so that there is no mistaking what the object represents. But in later times t= his was rarely done, and the characters became more conventional. Of the very l= arge number of these — between 3000 and 4000 - about 500 are in frequent u= se. They read usually from right to left, but also frequently from left to righ= t, and are sometimes placed in vertical columns. The heads of the animal chara= cters are always turned in the direction whence the inscription commences. <= /o:p>

HIEROGLYPHS. [113]

$$$ There are two classes of characters, = phonetic and ideographic. The phonetic are either alphabeto-syllabic or p= urely syllabic. The ideographic signs= are determinatives; either specific determinatives or simple ideogr= ams, or generic determinatives. The = alphabeto-syllabic signs (list on = p. [116]) are used in spelling out a word alphabetically. They were originally= ideograms transferred for use as purely phonetic-syllabic signs, and then almost enti= rely further restricted to more or loss alphabetic functions: thus , a rope, , a snake, , a pair of tongs, , a door-bolt, , an owl, etc., wore used to represent = the sound of the initial syllable of the Egyptian word signifying the objects t= hey represented, and then to represent the consonantal part of the syllable onl= y; , , , , , , and the following list always remained = more or less syllabic in their use, and , , , , , and (List of Syllabics) were only used alphabetically in late times. The ideogram is the picture of the object spo= ken of, and follows the spelling of the word to determine it. Thus = hfi, "snake." The generic dete= rminative is a symbol representing the class of ideas to which the word belongs. Thus= = tesem, "hound," is determined by a picture of a hide = and tail to show that it is the name of an animal. Occasionally words have determina= tives of both kinds, in which case the specific always precedes the generic. Some= times, especially in the earliest texts (and in certain well-known cases of common occurrence) in later times also), words are expressed by their ideograms on= ly. Even when the word is spelt out, the signs may be arranged in many different ways, the number of signs employed and the arrangement of them depending up= on the space at the engraver's disposal. Thus life, which is ankh, may be expressed= by its ideogram only, ; or it may be spelt out in four differ= ent ways: , , , or . It is easy to see how in time

the ideograms came to be used as syllabic phonetics. The ideogram for star gives a good example of this. In Egyptian, star is sba , written sometimes simply by its ideog= ram . The word for door is also sba, a= nd is written , the having in this case merely the syll= abic value sba.

i

[114] HIEROGLYPHS.

$$$ The following are some of the hierogl= yphic forms most frequently met with on the monuments. The frame enclosing hieroglyphs is called a cartouche, and almost invariably contains the name of a king or queen. The king's cartouches wore nominally two in number; the second containing the monarch's personal name or nomen; the first his prenomen or name as k= ing. The nomen may contain alphabeti= c or syllabic signs as well as ideograms: the prenomen, which was of a more formal and artificial character, was usually written in= simple ideograms alone (the parallel to Japanese, with its mixture of Chinese ideo= grams and Japanese syllabic signs, will at once present itself to the mind of any= body familiar with that language). A typical prenomen is that of Thothmes III.; = Ra, the sun, or sun god; = men, the picture of a chess-board,= and = kheper, the scarab, which has a va= riety of interpretations. The always comes first, but was probabl= y not pronounced first. It was written first honoris causâ only, as being the name of a god, Ra; but since the name meant "Stable (men) is the Being (khep= er) of Ra," it must have read Men = kheper Ra, and that this was in fact the reading we know from the Babylonian r= epresentation of the name as Manakhbiriya (man =3D , men; akhhi(r) =3D = kheper, Rîya =3D , Ra). The wasp symbolizes the royalty of Lower Egypt; so, frequently the group = will be seen above the cartouche containing the prenomen. It signifies "Kin= g of Upper and Lower Egypt," being the sign of the King of Upper Egypt. = , Se Ra, "son of the Sun," often precedes the nomina of kings, and = neb taui, "lord of the two lands," often follows them. is the crown of Lower Egypt, and that at Uppe= r Egypt. is the determinative of a house, an= d = per aa is the "great house,&q= uot; or Pharaoh. The phrase = ma kheru, which so frequently foll= ows the name of a deceased person, is variously translated, "justified,&qu= ot; "truth-speaking," "deceased." = neter, indicates a god or the adje= ctive divine; thus = hen neter is "minister of a god," a priestly title often

HIEROGLYPHS. [115]

seen in the tombs. The title may also frequently be seen before = a name in the tombs. It reads rekh suten, "(one who) knows the king," a member of the royal family or favou= red courtier. In both these cases it will be noticed that the signs for god and king are written first, honoris cau= sa, ah in the case of the ideogram of a god noted above.

= renpit is a "year," and =   = abot a "month." So many = strokes, as , are so many units, i.e. seven. Tens are written , i.e. thirty. Hundreds are written , and thousands . Thus , "the 3rd month of the 8th year&q= uot;; and the deceased prays for , "thousands of oxen and geese.&qu= ot;

The formula = suten hetep te (or rather hetep suten te, "A royal offe= ring given;" the ideogram , [te, "give"] was written third in order to balance the ideogram : this is an instance of pretty writing= for effect which often confuses the translator) occurs so repeatedly in the tomb inscr= iptions that it cannot fail to be noticed over entrances, on ka doors and stelae= , on friezes and rafters. It is the prayer begging for = per kheru, "sepulchral meals.= " The prayer is addressed most frequently to Osiris = Asar, or Anubis = Anpu, and commences with little variation, thus:

       &nbs= p;            &= nbsp;

Hetep suten = te        = ;           Asar

A royal offering given.      Osiris

neb              Tat= tu       &nbs= p; neter aa       ne= b        &nbs= p; Abtu       &nbs= p;       te.f             per kheru
lord (of)      Tattu       &nbs= p; God great,   lord (of)    Abydos     may give he     sepulchral meal= s

, &c.,

= ..........       &nbs= p; menkh

oxen, birds,    clothes

and goes on to beg the visitor to the tom= b to say the funereal formulae for the dead man.

i 2

[116] HIEROGLYPHS.

T= HE EGYPTIAN ALPHABETO-SYLLABIC SYSTEM.

= =3D a (semi-vowel)

= =3D a (semi-vowel)

= =3D a (semi-vowel)

= =3D i, y (semi-vowel)

= =3D i (or other inde-determinate vo= wel)

= =3D u (semi-vowel)

= =3D b

= =3D p

= =3D f

= =3D m

= =3D ma, m

= =3D n

= =3D n

= =3D r

= =3D ra, la, l

= =3D h

= =3D h

= =3D (h), kh

= =3D kha, kh

= =3D kha, kh

= =3D s

= =3D s

= =3D (s), sh

= =3D sha, sh

= =3D q or k

= =3D k

= =3D k or g

= =3D t

= =3D t

= =3D ti, t

= =3D t or d

= =3D (t'), tch, tj=

= =3D tcha, tch, tj

L= IST OF SYLLABIC SIGNS NOT USED ALPHABETICALLY.

(= Many of these are also used as Simple Ideograms.)

= =3D ua (later used alphabetically f= or o).

= =3D an

= =3D an

= =3D ari

= =3D an

= =3D un

= =3D un

= =3D ba (later used alphabetically f= or b, p)

= =3D ba, bai (later used alphabetica= lly for b, p)

= =3D pa (later used alphabetically f= or b, p)

= =3D ma

= =3D ma

HIEROGLYPHS. [117]

= =3D mer, ma

= =3D men

= =3D nu (later used alphabetically f= or n)

= =3D neb

= =3D ha

= =3D hem

= =3D her, hi, ho
= =3D khet, kht

= =3D sa (later used alphabetically f= or s)

= =3D sen

= =3D sn

= =3D ka

= =3D ta, to

LIST OF IDEOGRAMS, INCLUDING THOSE COMMON= LY MET WITH IN THE ROYAL CARTOUCHES.

(= a) Names of Gods and Places.

= Amen (god of Thebes)

= Ra (the Sun-god)

Ra (the Sun-god)

= Heru-behutet (Horus of Edfu) =

= Heru (Horus)

= Set

= Tehuti (Thoth)
= Temu (Sun-god of Heliopolis)

= Ptah (god of Memphis)

= Maat (goddess of Law and Right)

= Nit (Neïth, goddess of Sa&ium= l;s)

= Sebek (crocodile-god) <= /span>

= Anu (Heliopolis)

= Nekhen (Hierakonpolis) =

= Uaset or Tjamet (Thebes)

(= b) Ordinary Words.

(Common determinative ideograms marked with an asterisk*: objects of which the signs are pictures indicated within parentheses.)

, * * se, man, a, I, my

* hemt, wife

= hemt, wife

= * shera, khrat, child

= uer, old man

= uer, chief

[118] HIEROGLYPHS.

* (basket) neb, lord (to possess); used also for neb, all

= (sceptre) heq, prince <= /p>
= suten, king (of Upper Egypt); sa, him

* suten, king

* neter, god

* neter, god

* aarat, uraus; neteret, goddess

* pet, heaven; her, above

= ta, earth

* ra, sun, day

* (generic determinative), light, illum= inate

* (rising sun) akhut, sunrise, horizon

* (starry heaven) kekai, darkness

* sba, star; tua, praise

* aah, moon, abot, month

* tehen, storm

* mu, water

= tu, mountain

* (rocky land) semt, khast, desert= (and country, generally)

* (generic det.), foreign

* foreign country

* (plan of n town) nu, city

* (generic det.), place

* (plan of irrigation canals) hsep, nome, province

* (enclosure) per, house

* (walled enclosure) het, house<= /b>

* (generic det.) wall, building

* to build

= as, aset, throne

= khaut, altar

* (mat for offerings), hetep, offering; (trf.) rest, peace

= (feather) ma, maat, right, law, justice; shu, light, airy, dry

(lute), nefer, good, beautiful

(mallet), menkh, good, excellent

= (club), aa, great

= uer, great

* netjes, evil, small

(sceptre), user, mighty

(halberd), sekhem, power, powerful

(club), kherp, to wield, control

HIEROGLYPHS. [119]

= (generic det.), nekht, to control, force=

= tjeser, holy

= ma, te, to give

= te, to give

= rmen, arm; mah, cubit

= nekht, force; ku, to strike

= hu, to strike

= mesha, soldier
* khesef, enemy, prisoner

= mut, death

= (man's girdle) ankh, life. ( ankh utja senb, monographically, "life, health, strength")

= (beetle) kheper, to become, come into be= ing

(rising sun) kha, to appear

= mes, to be born, child<= /span>

= mer, to love

ab, hati, heart
= tep, head; (trf.) upon; tjatja, head

= her, hi, ho, face; (trf.) on =

= maa, see; a= ri, make.maa, see

= i, come; (general det., go, come, proceed, &c.)

(gen. det.), return, retreat

* sekher, fall down, be overthrown

* ab, dance

* a, hail! (gen. det., to greet)

= an, nen, not (privative sign)

= tem, to cut, close; (trf.) name of= the setting son; (privative) not

* shesep, to receive

= baa, wonderful
= (collar) nub, gold

(collar and white mace) hat, silver

(white mace) hetj, white

(mace) ut, command

= hem, tool, workman

, = ab, mer, (trf.) friend, courtier

water pouring from a vase) uab, pure; (trf.) priest

= netjem, sweet
= uah, to increase, wax <= /span>

= (plant) uatj, green, flourishing

= rut, to grow, increase =

[120] HIEROGLYPHS.

= (vase) khnem, to form, create

(adze), setep, chosen

(hoopoe) akh, akhu, bright, glorious; (trf.) spirit

= (crane) ba, soul

= ka, double (ghost); (trf.) hull

= ka, bull

= (goose) sa, son

= suht, egg; sa, son

, = sa, protection
= shepses, noble
= heb, feast

(throne-feast) sed-h= eb, jubilee

(tally with one notch) renpit, year

(deity holding year-tallies with ma= ny notches) heh, eternity

(tadpole) hfen; (trf.) hundred thousand.

= (head of a lion) peh, forefront =

(hind-quarters of a lion) peh, end; (trf.) reach, attain

(horns) uap, begin.

(dagger in sheath) tep, first

= hen, majesty, servant

= khmem, flame, be hot

* (generic det.) rope, bind<= /span>

* (generic det.) tie<= /p>
* shat, papyrus-roll; (trf.) abstract sign

* sfekh, write, pen

= shen, seal-ring, circle=

= (unknown), purse; (trf.) treasurer<= o:p>

* (generic det.) metal

* (generic det.) stone

* (generic det.) wood=

* (generic det.) grain

* seshen, flower, lily

* (generic det.) tree; (trf.) amt, favourite
* uat, her, matennu, road

= sekhet, field

(generic det.) liquids

(generic det.) oils, incense

(generic det.) animal

From the above list it will be seen that = some of these signs were polyphonous= , and that others were used in a transfer= red or derived sense, and that othe= rs were not used to represent their original ideas (the objects of which they = are pictures) at all; , , , are cases in point. This list, added = to that of the alphabeto-syllable signs preceding (with which the ideograms, b= oth simple and determinative, were combined in writing), will give an idea of t= he complexity of the ancient Egyptian writing, which, however, was not so clum= sy a means of

HIEROGLYPHS. [121]

expressing thought and speech as might ap= pear; it is no more complicated or clumsy than the very similar Chino-Japanese script, which the Japanese at any rate do not find incompatible with the mo= st practical modern civilization. The following typical Egyptian sentence, fro= m a historical narrative, with transliteration and translation, will serve to s= how how the writing was used in practice; for further information the reader is referred to the standard works on the subject - Dr. Budge's "Egyptian Language," "First Steps in Egyptian," and "Egyptian Reading-book," Dr. Erman's "Grammar," &c.

Renpit 16 abt 3 Pert       &nbs= p;     arit       &nbs= p;      Hen-f       &nbs= p;        tash-f       &nbs= p;          res       &nbs= p;     r

Year 16, month 3, of Pert was made (by)= His Majesty    his boundary     of the South    to =

Heh       &nbs= p;            &= nbsp; "Au-ar-na       &nbs= p;            tash-a       &nbs= p;            &= nbsp;     khent-a       &nbs= p;           (r)

Heh:       &nbs= p;             "I have made       &nbs= p;      my boundary       &nbs= p; my going up-stream (further than)

       &nbs= p; atfiu-a       &nbs= p;            &= nbsp;           &nbs= p;   au rfr-na aan           &nbs= p;           = her           sentjet.       &nbs= p;

        my fathers;       &nbs= p;            &= nbsp;            I have added       &nbs= p;            &= nbsp;     to     what was decreed

       nd        &nbs= p;         nuk       &nbs= p;       ante= n       &nbs= p;             tjetu(a)       &nbs= p;            &= nbsp;     ar-u(a)

     to me:       &nbs= p;         I     &n= bsp;         the King,       &nbs= p;    I say (it and)   &= nbsp;           &nbs= p;   I have done (it)."

(From a Boundary Inscription of Usertes= en III. at the second Cataract, XII. Dynasty, about 2300 B.C., now in the Berlin Museum.)

The Hieratic writing hail been evolved from the Hieroglyphic as early as the time of the= Old Empire; we possess papyri of the Middle and New Empires, written in hieratic containing works of all kinds, including poems, novels, and oven guide-book= s. The Demotic was developed out o= f the hieratic about the IX. Century B.C.; it was the usual mode of writing from = the XXVI. Dynasty onwards, when hieratic had fallen into desuetude, and a schol= arly knowledge of the hieroglyphs became confined to priestly archaeologists. Herotodus knows only of the existence of Hieroglyphic and Enchorial (i.e. Demotic). Demotic finally gave place in the III. and IV. Centuries of our era to the Greek alphabet, which became used to wr= ite Egyptian; this developed under the influence of Christianity into the Coptic writing, which is Greek with the addition of the letters , , , , , , and , to express the Egyptian sounds sh, f, kh, h, gj, tj, and the syllable di, which were unknown to Greek. A= rabic began to displace Coptic as the language of the country soon after the conquest, and by the XVII. Century Coptic was practically extinct. The Copt= ic passages in the Church-service are now hardly comprehended by the readers.

[122] HIEROGLYPHS.

<= o:p>

LIST OF THE CHIEF ROYAL CARTOUCHES.

(The Manethonian names are indicaled by the letter M.)

I. DYNASTY, "THINITE," B.C. 4= 400.

Legendary.

Historical.

King<= /i> Mena (M. Menes) ?

1. Horus Aha.

2.

Horus= Narmer (or Betjumer).

? ? ?

Tetà, Ateti, and Ata. (M. Athothis.)<= /p>

3. (?)

Horus= Tjn Ati (?).

4.

Horus= Khent (or Tjer).

or

King<= /i> Semti or "Hesepti." (M. Ousaphaïs)

5. Horus Den King Semti.

King<= /i> Merhapen. (M. Miebis.)

6.

Horus= At-jab King Merpeba.=

King<= /i> "Semsem." (M. Semempses.)=

7.

Horus= Smerkha King Nekht.

King<= /i> "Qebh."

8.

= Horus Qa King Sen.

HIEROGLYPHS. [123]

II. DYNASTY, "THINITE," B.C. = 4200.

or

King<= /i> Baiuneter or Be<= /span>tju-mer. (M. Boethos.)

9. or

or

Horus= Khasekhem or Khasekhemui Hetep-am-f King Horus Baiun= eter or Besh

10.

= Horus Hetep-Sekhemui.<= o:p>

11.

Horus= Neb-Ra.=

King<= /i> Ba-n-neter. (M. Binothris= .)

12.

Horus= Neneter.

13.

Horus= Sekhemab Set Perabsen.

King<= /i> Senta. (M. Sethenes.)

14.

King<= /i> Sente.<= /p>

III. DYNASTY, MEMPHITE, B.C. 4000.=

King<= /i> "Tjoser-sa." (M. Tosorthros.)

15.

= Horus Sa-nekht.

King<= /i> Tjeser-"teta." = (M. Tosertasis.)

16.

Horus= Khet-neter King Tjeser.

Historical.

17.

       &nbs= p;            &= nbsp; King      Sneferu = (M. Sephouris).=

[124] HIEROGLYPHS.

IV. DYNASTY, MEMPHITE, B.C. 3700.<= /o:p>

18.

    King    Shareru. (M. Soris)

21.

     King   Men-kau-Ra. (Mycerinus.)

19.

     King       Kh= ufu. (Cheops.)

22.

     King     Tet-f-Ra. (M. Ratoises.)

20.

     King    Khaf-Ra. (Chephren.)=

23.

     King Shepses-ka-f. (M. Sebercheres.)

V. DYNASTY, HELIOPOLITE, B.C. 3300.

24.

      King    User-ka-f. (M. Ousercheres.)

25.

      King     Sahu-Ra. (M. Sephres.)

26.

= King Nefer-ari-ka-Ra, = son of the Sun, Kakaa (M. Nepherecheres.)

27.

      King   Ne-user-Ra, son of the Sun,   An. (M. Rathoures.)

28.

      King    Men-kau-Heru. (M. Menecheres.)

29.

     King    Tet-ka-Ra, son of the Sun,      Assa. (M. Tancheres.)

30.

     King     Unas. (M. O= unos.)

HIEROGLYPHS. [125]

<= o:p>

VI. DYNASTY, MEMPHITE, B.C. 3200.<= /o:p>

31.

    King   Teta= .

32.

     King     User-ka-Ra,   son of the Sun,       At= i. (M. Othoes.)

33.

      King Meri-Ra,    son of the Sun, Pepi (I.). (M. Phiops.)=

34.

     King Mer-en-Ra,= son of the Sun, Mehti-em-sa-f. (= M. Methesouphis.)

35.

     King Nefer-ka-Ra, son= of the Sun,    Pe= pi (II.). (M. Phiops.)

36.

     King Neter-ka-Ra.*

37.

     King   Men-= ka-Ra.

VII.-VIII. DYNASTIES, MEMPHITE, B.C. 31= 00.

38.

    King   Nefe= r-ka-Ra Nebi.

39.

     King Nefer-ka-Ra Khentu.

40.

     King Ne-ka-Ra.

41.

     King Nefer-ka-Ra Tereru. (M. Thirillos.)

* The Maneth= onian Queen "Nitokris" of the VI. Dynasty is probably a mere mistake for this King Neter-ka-Ra, and to not to be regarded as a historical personage.

[126] HIEROGLYPHS.

42.

     King Nefer-ka-Ra Pepi-senb.

43.

      King Nefer-ari-ka-Ra.=

IX. AND X. DYNASTIES, HERAKLEOPOLITE, B= .C. 2800.

44.

      King Meri-ab-Ra,   son of the Sun,       Kh= ati.

45.

     King Meri-ka-Ra= .

46.

     King Neb-ka-n-Ra. (Le= gendary.)

XI. DYNASTY, THEBAN, B.C. 2600.

47.

Hereditary P= rince Antefa.=

48.

      King Neb-hetep, son of the Sun, Mentuhetep (I.).

49. or

      King Neb-hapet-Ra, son of the Sun, Mentuhetep (II. = or III.).

50.

     King Neb-taui-Ra, son= of the Sun, Mentuhetep (IV.?).

51.

    King Sankh-ka-Ra, son= of the Sun, Mentuhetep (V?).

52.

= Horus Uah-ankh, King, = son of the Sun, Antef-aa.

XII. DYNASTY, THEBAN, B.C. 2400).<= /o:p>

53.

     King Se-hetep-ab-Ra, = son of the Sun, Amene= mhat (I.). (M. Ammanemes.)

HIEROGLYPHS. [127]

54.

= King Kheper-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Senusert or Usertsen (I.). (M. "Sesonchosis," i.e. Sesostris.)

55.

     King Nub-kau-Ra, son = of the Sun, Amenemhat (II.). (M. Ammenemes.)

56.

= King Kha-kheper-Ra, son of the Sun, Senusert or Usre= tsen (II.) (M. Sesostris.)

57.

     King Kha-kau-Ra, son = of the Sun, Senusert or Usertsen (III.) (M. Khakhares.)

58.

    King Ne-maat-Ra= , son of the Sun, Amenemhat (III.)= . (M. Lamaris, Labaris, or Amerres; Hdt. Moiris.)

59.

     King An-ab-Ra,     son of the Sun,       H<= span style=3D'background:yellow;mso-highlight:yellow'>er

60.

     King Maat-kheru-Ra, s= on of the Sun, Amenemhat (IV.). (M.= Ammenemes.)

61.

    King (sic) Sebek-neferu-Ra, She who liveth. (M. Queen Skemiophris.)

[128] HIEROGLYPHS.

XIII. DYNASTY, THEBAN, B.C. 2200.<= /o:p>

62.

King and Lor= d of the Two Lands, Sekhem-ka-Ra.

63.

King<= /i> Sekhem-khu-taui-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebekhetep (I.).=

64.

     King Smenkh-ka-Ra, so= n of the Sun, Merma= shnu.

65.

King<= /i> Sekhem-suat-j-taui-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebekhetep (II.)= .

66.

    King Kha-seshes-Ra, s= on of the Sun, Neferhetep.

67.

    King Kha-nefer-Ra, so= n of the Sun, Sebekhetep (III.).

68.

     King Mer-nefer-Ra, son of the Sun,      Ai (I.).=

69.

King<= /i> Sekhem uat-j-khitu-Ra, son of the Sun, Sobekemsaf (I.).

70.

King<= /i> Sekhem-sesheti-taui-Ra, son of the Sun, Sebekemsaf (II.)= .

(To this portion of the dyna= sty also belong the kings Kha-ankh-Ra Usertsen (IV.), Mer-ankh-Ra Mentuhetep (V.), Mer-sekhem-Ra Neferhetep, and Mer-hetep-Ra Sebekhotep, whose statues have been discovered = by M. Legrain at Karnak.)=

HIEROGLYPHS. [129]

71.

     King Nub-kheperu-Ra, son of the Sun, Antef.

72.

= King Seshes-Ra up-maa, son of the Sun, Antef-aa.

73.

King<= /i> Seshes-Ra her-hra-maa, son of the Sun, Antef-aa. <= /o:p>

XIV. DYNASTY XOÏTE (uncertain).

XV. AND XVI. DYNASTIES, MEMPHITE (Hyksos, or "SHEPHERD KINGS"), B.C. 1900.

74.

Son of the S= un, Iapeqher.

75.

Good God, Untjed.

76.

Good God, Maa-ab-Ra.

77.

Good God, Se-kha-n-Ra.<= /span>

78.

King<= /i> Seuser-n-Ra, Prince of the Deserts, son of the Sun, Khian.

79.

     King     Aa-user-Ra, son of the Sun, Apepa (I.).=

80.

    King Aa-qenen-Ra,   son of the Sun,   Apepa (II.).

81.

      King Aa-pehti-Set, son of the Sun, Nubti-Set.

k

[130] HIEROGLYPHS.

XVII. DYNASTY, THEBAN, B.C. 1800.<= /o:p>

82.

      King       Se= qenen-Ra, son of the Sun,   Tau-aa.<= /p>

83.

      King    Seqenen-Ra, son of the Sun, Tau-aa-aa.<= /o:p>

84.

      King Seqenen-Ra, son of the Sun, Tau-aa-qen.

85.

King's Wife Teta-shera.

86.

= King Uatj-Kheper-Ra, son of the Sun,     Kames.

XVIII. DYNASTY, THEBAN, B.C. 1650.=

87.

     King Neb-pehti-Ra, son of the Sun,     Aahmes. (Amasi= s I.)

88.

King's Wife<= /span> Aahmes-Nefertari.

89.

     King Tjeser-ka-Ra, so= n of the Sun, Amen-hetep. (Amenophis I.)

90.

King<= /i> Aa-kheper-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Tehuti-mes. (Tho= thmes I.)

HIEROGLYPHS. [131]

91.

King<= /i> Aa-kheper-on-Ra, son of the Sun, Tehuti-mes nef= er-khan. (Thothmes II.)

92.

King<= /i> Maat-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Hat-shepsi khnemt-Amon. (Queen Hatshepsu.)

93.

King<= /i> Men-kheper-[ka]-Ra, son of the Sun, Tehuti-mes (Thot= hmes III.)

94.

King<= /i> Aa-kheperu-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-hetep neter= heq Annu. (Amenophis II.)

95.

King<= /i> Men-kheperu-Ra, son of the Sun, Tehuti-mes kha-k= hau. (Thothmes IV.)

96.

King<= /i> Neb-maat-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-hetep heq-Uaset. (Amenophis III.)

97.

King's Chief Wife,   Tii.

98.

King<= /i> Nefer-Kheperu-Ra ua-n-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-hetep neter= heq Uaset (Amen-hetep IV.)

or later,

       &nbs= p;        &nbs= p;Khu-n-Aten.

k 2

[132] HIEROGLYPHS.

99.

= King's Chief Wife, Nef= er-neferu-Aten Neferti-it.

100.

King<= /i> Ankh-kheperu-Ra, son of the Sun, Smenkh-ka-Ra Tjeser-kheperu.

101.

       King Neb-kheperu-Ra, son of the Sun, Tut-ankh-Amen heq-An-res.

102.

King<= /i> Kheper-kheperu-Ra-ari-maa= t, son of the Sun, Divine Father Ai= (II.) neter-heq-Uaset.

103.

King<= /i> Tjeser-kheperu-Ra setep-e= n Ra, son of the Sun, Heru-em-heb meri= -Amen.

XIX. DYNASTY, THEBAN, B.C. 1400.

104.

   King Men-pehti-Ra, son of the Sun, Ra-messu. (Rameses I.)

105.

King<= /i> Men-maat-Ra, son of the Sun, Seti mer-n-Ptah. (Seti I.)<= /p>

106.

King<= /i> User-maat-Ra setep-en-Ra,= son of the Sun, Ra-messu-meri-Am= en. (Rameses II.)

HIEROGLYPHS. [133]

107.

King<= /i> Ba-en-Ra mer-Amen, son of the Sun, Mer-en-Ptah-hetep-her-maat. (Mer-en-Ptah I.)

108.

King<= /i> User-kheperu-Ra-meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Seti Mer-en-Ptah= . (Seti II.)

109.

King<= /i> Men-ma-Ra setep-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Amenmeses heq-Uaset.

110.

Lady of the = Two Lands, Si= t-Ra Meritamen Queen Tausret setepet-en-Mut.

111.

King<= /i> Khu-en-Ra Setep-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Si-ptah Mer-en-P= tah.

112.

King<= /i> User-khau-Ra setep-en-Ra meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Set-nekht meri-Ra merer-Amen.

XX. DYNASTY, THEBAN, B.C. 1150.

113.

King<= /i> User-maat-Ra-meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Ra-meses heq-Annu (Rameses III.)

114.

King User-maa= t-Ra setep-en-Amen, son of the Sun, Ra-meses meri-Amen-Ra heq maat. (Rameses IV.)

[134] HIEROGLYPHS.

115.

King User-maa= t-Ra s-kheper-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Amen-Ra-mes-f-sn meri-Amen. (Rameses V.)

116.

King<= /i> Maa-neb-Ra meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Amen-Ra-meses ne= ter heq Annu. (Rameses VI.)

117.

King User-maa= t-Ra meri-Amen setep-en-Ra, son of the= Sun, Amen-Ra-mesesti neter-heq-Annu. (Rameses VII.)

118.

King<= /i> User-maat-Ra Akh-en-Amen,= son of the Sun, Amen-Ra-meses me= ri-Amen. (Rameses VIII.)

119.

King<= /i> S-kha-eu-Ra meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Ra-meses se-Ptah= . (Rameses IX.)

120.

King<= /i> Nefer-kau-Ra setep-en-Ra,= son of the Sun, Ra-meses merer-A= men kha-Uaset. (Rameses X.)

121.

King<= /i> Kheper-mat-Ra setep-en-Ra= , son of the Sun, Amen-Ra-messu. (Rameses XI.)

122.

King Men-maat-Ra-setep-en-Ra, son of t= he Sun, Ra-meses-merer-Amen kha Uaset neter heq Annu. (Rameses XII.)

HIEROGLYPHS. [135]

XXI. DYNASTY (a), TANITE, B.C. 1100).

123.

Good God, Lord of the Two Lands, Hetj-kheper-Ra setp-n-Ra, son of Sun, Nsibanebtat meri-Amen. (Smendes.)

124.

King<= /i> Aa-kheper-Ra sept-n-Mentu= , son of the Sun, Psibkhannu meri-= Amen.

125.

King<= /i> Neter-kheper-Ra setp-n-Am= en, son of the Sun, Si-Amen meri-Ame= n.

XXI. DYNASTY (b), THEBAN, B.C. 1050.

126.

King Hen-neter-tep-en-Amen, High-pries= t of Amen, son of the Sun, Her= -Heru se-Amen. (Herhor.)

127.

King<= /i> Painetjem (I.).

128.

High-priest = Men-kheper-Ra.<= /span>

129.

King<= /i> Kheper-kha-Ra setep-en-Am= en, son of the Sun, Painetjem (II.;) meri-Amen.

XXII. DYNASTY, BUBASTITE, B.C. 930=

130.

King<= /i> Hetj-kheper-Ra setep-en-R= a, son of the Sun, Shashank meri-Am= en. (Shishak.)

131.

King<= /i> Sekhem-kheper-Ra setep-en= -Ra, son of the Sun, Uasarken meri-Am= en, (Osorkon I.)

[136] HIEROGLYPHS.

132.

King<= /i> User-maat-Ra, son of the Sun, Takeloti (Takelo= this I.)

133.

King<= /i> User-maat-Ra setep-en-Ame= n, son of the Sun, Uasarkon meri-Am= en. (Osorkon II.)

134.

King<= /i> Seshes-kheper-Ra setep-en= -Amen, son of the Sun, Shashank meri-Am= en-Ra. (Shishak II.)

135.

King<= /i> Hetj-kheperu-Ra setep-en-= Ra, son of the Sun, Takelot meri-Amen si-Aset. (Takelothis II.)

136.

King<= /i> User-maat-Ra setep-en-Ra,= son of the Sun, Shashank meri-Am= en si-Bastet. (Shiskak III.)

137.

King<= /i> User-maat-Ra setep-en-Ame= n, son of the Sun, Pimai meri-Amen.=

138.

King<= /i> Aa-khoper-Ra, son of the Sun, Shashank. (Shish= ak IV.)

XXIII. DYNASTY, TANITE, B.C. 750.<= /o:p>

139.

King<= /i> Seher-ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Petebastet meri-Amen.

HIEROGLYPHS. [137]

XXIV. DYNASTY, SAITE, B.C. 750.

140.

    King Shepses-Ra, son of the Sun, Tafnekht. (Tnephachthos.)

141.

     King Uah-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Bakenrenf. (Bocchoris.)

XXV. DYNASTY, ETHIOPIAN, B.C. 700.=

142.

    King User-maat-Ra, son of the Sun, Piankhi meri-Ame= n.

143.

        King      Kashta.<= o:p>

144.

     Queen   Amenartas.

145.

     King Nefer-ka-Ra, son= of the Sun, Shabaka. (Sabaco.)

146.

      King Tet-kau-Ra, son of the Sun,  &= nbsp; Shabataka.

147.

King Nefer-tem-khu-Ra, son of the Sun, Taharqa. (Tirhaka.)

148.

      King Ba-ka-Ra, son of the Sun, Tanut-Amun. (Tandamauo.)

[138] HIEROGLYPHS.

XXVI. DYNASTY, SAITE, B.C. 650.

149.

     King Uah-ab-Ra, son of the Sun,     Psametik. (Psammetichus I.)

150.

       King   Nem-ab-Ra,   son of the Sun,     Nekau. (Necho = II.)

151.

     King Nefer-ab-Ra, son of the Sun,<= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'>     Psametik. (Psammetichus II.)

152.

        King    Haa-ab-Ra,    son of the Sun, Uah-ab-Ra. (Apries.)

153.

      King Khnem-ab-Ra, son of the Sun, Aahmes sa-net. (Amasis II.)=

154.

      King Ankh-ka-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Psametik. (Psamm= etichus III.)

XXVII. DYNASTY, PERSIAN, B.C. 527.=

155.

        King   Mesuti-Ra, son of the Sun, Kembatit. (Kambujiya, Cambyses.)

HIEROGLYPHS. [139]

156.

   King Setetu-Ra, son of the Sun, Nt([a]r[i]y[a]wash. (Dariyavaush, Darius Hyst= aspes.)

157.

Lord of the = Two Lands, Khshaiarsha. (Khshayarsha, Xerxes.)

158.

       Ki= ng       &nbs= p; Artakhashas= ha. (Artakhashtra, Artaxerxes.)

159.

= King Meri-Amen-Ra, son of the Sun, Nt-[a]r[i]y[a]wash. (Darius II.)

XXIX. DYNASTY, MENDESIAN, B.C. 390=

160.

King<= /i> Ba-en-Ra meri-nteru, son of the Sun, Naifaa?rut. (Nepherit= es.)

161.

King<= /i> Khnem-maat-Ra, son of the Sun, Haker. (Achoris.= )

162.

King<= /i> User-Ra setep-en-Ptah, son of the Sun, Psemut. (Psammon= this.)

[140] HIEROGLYPHS.

XXX. DYNASTY, SEBENNYTIAN, B.C. 378.

163.

King Senetjem= -ab-Ra setep-en-Amen, son of the Sun, Nekht-Heru-hebet meri-Amen. (Nektanebos I.)

164.

King<= /i> Ari-maat-en-Ra, son of the Sun, Tjeho setep-en-A= nhur. (Tachos, Teos.)

165.

    King Kheper-ka-Ra, so= n of the Sun, Nekht-neb-f. (Nektanebos II.)

XXXII DYNASTY, MACEDONIAN, B.C. 332.

166.

King<= /i> Setep-en-Ra meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Aleksandros. (Alexander the Great.)

167.

King<= /i> Setep-en-Ra meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Phiuliupos (Phil= ip Arrhidaeus.)

XXXIII. DYNASTY, PTOLEMIES, B.C. 305.

168.

King<= /i> Setep-en-Ra-meri-Amen, son of the Sun, Ptul[e]m[a]i[o]s= . (Ptolemy I. Soter I.)

169.

King<= /i> User-ka-Ra meri-Amon, son of the Sun, [Pt[o]lum[a]i[o]= s. (Ptolemy II. Philadelphos.)

HIEROGLYPHS. [141]

170.

King Au-n-Neterni-senni Setep-n-Amen-Ra kherp-ankh, Son of the Sun, Ptol[e]m[a]i[o]s ankh-tjet meri-Ptah.

"Heir of the Brother-gods, chosen of Amen-Ra, Wielder of Life." Ptolemy (I= II. Euergetes I.= ), living for ever, beloved of Ptah.

171.

King Au-[n]-Neterui-menkhui Setep-n-Ptah User-ka-Amen-Ra kherp ankh. Son of the Sun, Ptolemais Ankh-t= jet meri-Aset.

"Heir of the two gods Euergeteis, chosen by Ptah, Mighty double of Amen-Ra, Wie= lder of Life." Ptolemy (IV. Philopater), = living for ever, beloved of Isis.

172.

King Aa-neterui-mer-iotui setep-n-Ptah User-ka-Amen-Ra kherp ankh. Son of the Sun, Ptolemaios ankh-= tjet meri-Ptah.

"Heir of the two gods Philopatores, chosen of Ptah, Mighty Double of Amen-Ra, Wielder of Life." Ptolemy (V. Epiphanes), living for ever, beloved of Ptah.

173.

King<= /i> An-neterni-khu Setep-n-Pt= ah-Khepra ari-maat-Amon-Ra. = [CONTINUED NEXT PAGE]

"Heir o= f the two gods Epiphaneis, chosen of Ptah-Khepra, carrying out the law of Amen-= Ra."

[142] HIEROGLYPHS.

Son of the S= un, Ptolemaios ankh-t-jet me= ri-Ptah.

Ptolemy (VII. Philometor I.), living for ever, beloved of Ptah= .

174.

King Au-n-net= erui-khu setep-n-Ptah ari-maat-Amen-Ra kherp-ankh. Son of the Sun, Ptolemaios ankh-tjet meri-Ptah.

"Heir of the two gods Epiphaneis, chosen of Ptah, doing the law of Amen-Ra, Wie= lder of Life." Ptolemy (IX. Euergetes II. Physkon), living for ever, beloved of Ptah.

175.

King Au neterti-menkhti mer-mat-s (sic) Nit Setep-n-Ptah Ari-maat-Amen-Ra kherp-(ankh). Son of the Sun, Ptolemaios ankh-tjet meri-Ptah.

"Heir of the two gods Euergetois, loving his another Neith (?), chosen of Ptah, doing the law of Amen-Ra, Wielder of (Life)." Ptolemy X= . (Soter II. Philometor II.).

176.

King Au-neterui-menkhui setep-n-Ptah ari-maat-Amen-Ra Senon-n-ankh. Son of the Sun, Ptolomaios tjetu-nef Aleksantros ankh-tjet me= ri Ptah.

"Heir of the two gods Euergeteis, chosen of Ptah, doing the law of Amen-Ra, Ima= ge of Life." Ptolemy who is called Alexander, living for ever, whom Ptah loveth. (Ptolemy XI. Alexander.)

HIEROGLYPHS. [143]

177.

King Au-n-pneter-nti-nehem Setep-n-Ptah ari-maat-n-Amen-Ra kherp ankh. Son of the Sun, Ptolemaios ankh-= tjet meri-Ptah-Aset.

"Heir of the Saviour-God, chosen of Ptah, doing the law of Amen-Ra, Wielder of = Life." Ptolemy (= XIII. Neos Dionysos, Auletes), living for ev= er, beloved of Ptah and Isis.

178.

Princess of = the two lands, Kl= eopatra. Cleopatra (VI.)

179.

King and lor= d of the two lands= ,       Pto= lemaios. Ptolemy (XIV.)

XXXIV. DYNASTY, ROMAN EMPERORS, B.C. 27= .

180.

        King and lord of the two lands, Autoqrator. Autocrator. = Son of the Sun, lord of appearings,<= /i> Caesar (Augustus), living for ever, whom= Ptah and Isis love.

181.   [CONTINUED NEXT PAGE]

King and lor= d of the two lands, Autoqrator son of the Sun. Autocrator,

[144] HIEROGLYPHS.

lord of appe= arings, T[i]bar[o]s K[a]is[a]r[o= ]s ankh-tjet, Tiberius Caesar, livin= g for ever.

182.

King<= /i> Aut[o]qr[a]t[o]r K[a]is[a= ]r[o]s, Autocrator Caesar. Son of the Sun= , Ql[a]ud[io]s Tibar[io]s, Claudius Tiberius.

183.

King<= /i> Heq-hequ setep-en-Aset, m= eri Ptah, Ruler of Rulers, chosen one= of Isis, beloved of Ptah. Son of the Sun, Autukr[a]t[o]ra Ner[o]anu. Autocrator Nero. (!ÛJ@6"J`D" ;,Df<".)

184. M[a]rk[o]s Antun[o]s. Marcus Otho.=

185. U[e]spasi[a]n[o]s nti-khu. Vespasi= anus the Protector.

186. T[i]t[o]s Kaisaros. Titus Caesar. =

187. Tum[i]ti[a]nus nti-khu. Domitianus= the Protector.

188. Nernas nti-khu. Nerva the Protecto= r.

189. [CONTINUED NEXT PAGE]

King and lord of the two lands, Autukr[a]t[o]r Kais[a]r[o]s N[o]roua, Autocrator Caesar Nerva.=

HIEROGLYPHS. [145]

The Sun's so= n, lord of appearings, Traian[o]s nti-khu Auk[u]st[os] Kermain[i]kos Nt[a]kik[o]s. Trajanus the Protector, Augustus Germanicus Daciens.

190.

Son of the S= un and lord of the two lands, Autukr[a]t[o]r K[a]is[a]r[o]s'l'r[a]i[a]nus. Autocrator Caesar Trajanus, Son of the San and lord= of appearings, Atri[a]n[u]s nti-khu. Hadrianus the Protector.=

191.

Sun of the S= un, lord of the two lands, Aut[o]kr[a]t[o]r Kais[a]r[o]s. Autocrator Caesar. Sun of the Sun, lord of appearings, Aur[o]lias Antoninus uti-khu ankh-t-jet. Aurelius Atoninus the Protector, living for ever.

192.

Aut[o]kr[a]t[o]r Autoc= rator K[ai]s[a]r[o]s Caesar    Luki[us] Lucius    Aulli[us] Aelius      Uero[s] ankh-tjet. Verus, living forever.

193. [CONTINUED NEXT PAGE]

King and lor= d of the two lands= , Autokrit[o]r K[a]isaur[o]s, Autocrator Caesar,

l=

[146] HIEROGLYPHS.

Son of the S= un, lord of appearings, Kam[o]dus Antoninus nti-khu. Commocus Antoninus, the Protector.

194. Sau[e]ri[u]s nti-khu. Severus the Protector.

195. Gat[a] nti-khu. Geta the Protector= .

196. Anton[i]nus nti-khu. Antoninus (Ca= racalla) the Protector.

197.

       &nbs= p;   T[o]ksas nti-khu. D= ecius the Protector.

Note. - The hieroglyphs of names 184-188 = and 194-196, which are of rare occurrence, are of the same type as those of the rest of = the Roman period.

XII. ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION.

1. General Ske= tch.

The scope of this book will not permit of= more than a sketch in outline of the main features of so complicated a subject as the religion of the ancient Egyptians. To speak of the religion is a misnom= er; rather should we say the religions, as dogma varied with the different peri= ods of history, and as each large college of priests had its own cosmological a= nd theological doctrines.

The Egyptian religion was a polytheism of= the usual kind. The deities had m all probability various origins, like the god= s of other nations. Anthropological science has not yet seen its way to do much = more than merely gather data concerning them. With regard to Egypt, = all that can be said is that the veneration of the dead as gods (Osiris worship), and the reverence paid to certain demon animals, such as the jackal, cat, hawk, &c. (in fact, the more primitive elements of the national religion), are probably of indigenous (Nilotic) origin. The worship of the sky-god Horus w= ould seem, from the traditions connected with him, to have been a very ancient importation from the East. The same may be said of the Ra cult of Heliopolis. Amon,= the great god of Thebes= , was originally a mere local demigod of the Thebaïd, who was raised to = his position as "King of the Gods" by the accident of Theban hegemony under the great Pharaohs. The henot= heistic phenomenon is frequently visible in the extant prayers to the gods; the wor= shipper addresses one particular deity as if he were the only god existing. The

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION. [147]

same worshipper would address another god afterwards in exactly the same terms. Considerable traces of a true monotheistic tendency have, howeve= r, also been observed, and there was constant recognition of "the divine"= (JÎ 2,Ã@<) in nature.

A monotheistic heresy arose for a short t= ime towards the end of the XVIII. Dynasty (about 1400 B.C.), under the personal inspiration of king Amen-hetep IV. (Khu-n-Aton), who was an original genius= in many ways. His idea was that the disk of the sun, which was the only visible and recognisable source of light, heat, and life, was the only real energis= er of the world, the only divinity, in fact. All the myriad deities of the Egy= ptian pantheon were, then, vain figments, and were to be abandoned and abolished.= The actual disk was, however, not itself deity, though a divine thing. It was o= nly the vehicle through which the divine gift of life was given to the world; t= he window in heaven, so to speak, through which the Unknown God, "the Lor= d of the Disk," poured forth his life-giving rays. This remarkable belief s= eems to have been based on the philosophical speculations of the priests of the = sun-god Ra-Harmachis of Heliopolis. This god was, at least for a time, regarded as identical with Khu-n-Aten's sun-god, and his names were spared when those of the other gods, and especi= ally Amen, their king, were erased from the monuments. The heresy died with its inventor, and the Egyptians returned joyfully to the myriad superstitions of their ancestors.

The gods which the traveller will most frequently see represented on the monuments are: -

Ra<= span lang=3DEN-GB style=3D'mso-ansi-language:EN-GB'>, the sun, who was worshippe= d under many forms. Of these the commonest is his form as the rising sun, when he b= ears the name Harmakhis; as the midd= ay sub, Ra; as the setting sun, Tmu; and as the sun during his nig= ht journey, Anf. Ra is in constant conflict with Apepi, the evil one, or darknes= s in the form of a serpent, who at sunset begins to fight with him, and continues all the night until the morning. This represents the purely physical contest between light and darkness.

The Egyptian theory of the sun differs fr= om that of earlier nations, in that, instead of his being represented in a cha= riot drawn by horses, he is always in a boat, since the conception of the sky was that it was an ocean.

Shu= , the atmosphere, and Tefnut, are children of Ra. The former is symbolised by a feather.

Osiris<= /b> was the child of Seb or Geb, the earth, and Nu= t, the heavens. His wife is his sister Isis, and their child was Horus (the sky). The war waged ag= ainst Osiris by his brother Set, who= se wife was Nephthys, represents the conflict between evil and good. Osiris being killed by Set became lord of the Amenti or t= he nether world, where he sat and judged the dead. His death was avenged by his son Horus. He was identified with Seker, mummy-god of Sakkâra= .

Nut= , the sky, is represented on= the ceiling at Dendera and elsewhere, extending her arms and legs to the earth, while her body is covered with stars.

Anubis<= /b> and Uapuaut are represented with a jackal's head, and are very freq= uently seen in the tombs. They guided the dead to Hades, and presided over the fun= eral rites. The jackal become superstitiously

l 2

[148] ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION.

regarded as the lord of the tomb-world ow= ing to its habit of prowling at night in the desert where the tombs are.

Horus - usually represented with = a hawk's head - (originally the sky) is also a name for the sun. Though he belongs to the family of Osiris, there is = an independent set of myths connected with him.

The eye of Horus is constantly spoken of as a distinct deity. His two eyes are frequently represented; and, made in various materials, were used as amulets against t= he enemies of light. Osiris, Isis, and Horus formed a triad, and are often represented together, as at= Abydos.

Set= , although the antagonist of= light, was not in the first instance a god of evil. It was only in the decline of = the Empire that he came so to be regarded, and his image to be effaced from all monume= nts. It is because a figure of him occurs as a syllabic in the name of Seti that= so many of the cartouches of that king are found mutilated. He was especially connected with the usurping Hyksos<= /i>, or "Shepherd" kings.

Thoth - represented with the head= of an ibis - was the great inventor god. He it was who invented the principles of writing (see p. [111]), arithmetic, music, &c. He is called the Measurer, and is the moon-god, wea= ring sometimes the crescent moon, sometimes the full disk on his head. It was he= who recorded the result of the weighing of the heart of the deceased in the jud= gment hall of Osiris.

Maat was one of the most importa= nt of the divinities in the Egyptian Pantheon, though she figures less frequently= on the monuments than many others, possibly because she was not so often personified. She represents truth and justice, law and order.

The goddess Hathor, whose attributes are in places identical with those of = Mut and Isis, is represented with the head and horns of a cow with the = disk between the horns, and in a certain Egyptian tale the seven Hathors seem to take the place of = fairy godmothers. She is spoken of as dau= ghter of Ra and mother of Horus. = Her head with the cow's ears was often represented on the abaci of columns. She= was especially connected with the desert.

Ptah, the local god of Memphis. Identified with Seker, the mummy-god of Sakkâra, and so with Osiris. The goddess Sekhemet or Pakhet, confused with Ubastet (Bast) of Bubastis<= /st1:City>, was described as his wife, and the deified sage Imhetep as their son.

Mut= ("Mother"), local= goddess of Thebes. She was portrayed with a vulture cap and the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt. Khonsu, a = moon-god, was her son.

Amen, the principal divinity at = Thebes, is a god w= ho is often met with in the double characters of Amen-Ra, Amen-Khnem, or Min-Amen. He is not known in the earliest times. His characteri= stic headdress is a crown with two enormous feathers. At <= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Thebes he forms a triad with Mut and Khonsu. There are several hymns to Amen, in which he is spoken = of in monotheistic terms.

Min= was the local god of Koptos= and Panopolis. He symbolises the reproductive power of gods and men.

Khnum or Khnemu, the potter, god of the South: symbol, a ram.

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION. [149]

$$$ Sebek, the crocodile-headed god, is met with at Kôm Ombo. He was also the pa= tron deity of the Fayyûm.

Though it is difficult to assert much abo= ut the religion of the ancient Egyptians, there is one belief it is certain they h= eld, and that was the doctrine of a fut= ure life and the immortality of the soul in the world of the tombs (Kherti-neter) on the western bank = (Amenti) of the Nile, where most of the necropoles were. Even this doctrine was hold in rather co= mplicated though confused detail. The great desire of the Egyptian was to live 110 ye= ars and then to continue the same life in the tomb-world, for he could imagine = no happier existence than that he had already experienced on the banks of the Nile. It is hence a very material conception of a hereafter that we find recorded in the tombs. It was thought that the body = was a necessary part of the soul's continued existence. For this reason the Khat, or body, the mortal and corruptible part of man, was mummified, and the mummy so carefully conceale= d in a hidden chamber of the tomb. At death the immortal part of man was resolved into six elements (more in some local cults). The Ka , or "astral" counterpart of = the deceased, has also been called the "double" and "genius.&quo= t; It is sometimes represented in pictures as a counterpart of the man, standi= ng behind him. It remained with the Khat = until death, the Khat being unable to= live without the Ka, though the Ka could exist without the body. <= o:p>

The Ka was material, requiring food like the Khat, visiting the mummy sometimes to receive the food prepared for it in the cha= pel by the relatives of the deceased. Rich people founded endowments in order t= hat priests might, through future generations, carry on these tomb-feasts for t= he benefit of the Ka. On these occasions t= he Ka required something which it mig= ht clothe itself upon; so for this purpose Ka statues were put in the tombs, which were, as far as possible, exact likenesses of the deceased; to which custom we owe the excellent series of portrait-statues in the Gîza and other museums.

Man's heart was supposed to have an immor= tal part called Ab, which stood in = the same relation to the material heart as the Ka to the body. The Ab left man at= death and wandered away to the Abode of H= earts, and only met the deceased again in the Hall of Judgment, where it was weigh= ed by Anubis against the feather of Truth. When the viscera were removed from = the body before it was mummified, a hea= rt scarab was inserted to take the place of the heart. The scarab was a symbol of gen= esis and resurrection, and the heart scarab was inscribed with a magic formula.<= o:p>

The part of man most nearly corresponding= to our idea of a soul was the Ba, repr= esented as a bird with a human head. At death the Ba immediately left man and sought its proper home with the gods, to whom it w= as akin. But it returned to the Khat at times, sometimes with the sign of life in its hands, and sometimes with fo= od and drink. But even here the conception was not wholly immaterial; for a chapte= r in the Book of the Dead ensures "abundance of food to the Ba."

The Sahu, depicted as a mummy, is a primitive conception, the

[150] ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION.

deified dead man living in awful nobility "in the sarcophagus (or underworld)."

The Khaibit, or shadow, was represented by a fan or sunshade. Being separated from the m= an at death, his shadow went forth to the realm of the gods.

The Khu, translated either "luminous" or "intelligence," went fo= rth to wander through space at the dissolution of the elements of man.

These ideas are really more or loss confl= icting, and are the outcome of the diversity of local beliefs. They are given above= as they were more or loss arbitrarily put together when the religion began to = be in part systematised.

The Book of th= e Dead is sometimes called the &qu= ot;Funeral Ritual." Many copies of it have been found, no two of which are exactl= y alike. The Papyrus of Ani in the British Museum contains 165 chapters, bein= g the longest known, yet not containing several chapters found in other copies. In the oldest copies there are not so many chapters. It has been translated by various scholars. The main subject of the whole work is the "beatifica= tion of the dead." It consists chiefly of prayers and magical charms to ena= ble the dead man to attain happiness in the tomb-world. We learn from it that t= he deceased had the power of transforming himself into several different anima= ls. We also learn that the deceased was identified with the god Osiris, and is called Osiris. Accounts are given of the obstructions the deceased will fin= d in the other world, and of the trials through which he must come; and prayers = to various gods are provided for him that will deliver him from all the evils. Copies of the book have been found in many tombs, as it was frequently buri= ed with the mummy. Chapters of it were painted or carved on tomb walls, coffin, and sarcophagus, and sometimes even on the mummy itself. =

Other magical books of the same kind were= the Book of That which is in Hades (th= e Book of the Ami-Tuat) and the Book of the Gates (see Budge, &quo= t;The Egyptian Heaven and Hell").

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION. [151]

2. Illustrated= List of the Principal Egyptian Divinities.

The following is an illustra= ted list, arranged alphabetically, of the cities [sic, sho= uld be deities] most often seen on the monuments.

1. Amen or Amen-Ra, represented standing, and wearing a flat cap with two tall plumes;= or as a mummy, seated, with the same headdress and holding the sceptre, scourg= e, and crook, when he is Amen-Osiris. He is also found identified with many ot= her gods as Min-Amen, Amen-Khnem.

2. Anubis = has a jackal's head: the god of the embalmers, and guardian of tombs.<= /span>

[152] ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION.

3. Hathor has a cow's h= ead, with the moon's disk between her horns.

4. Herupakhrat (Horus t= he Child), the Harpokrates of the Greeks, son of Osiris and Isis, places his fingers to his lips as a sign of childhood, not of silence.

5. Heru (Horus the Elde= r, Haroëris), originally the sky-god, has a hawk's head and wears the dou= ble crown.

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION. [153]

6. Isis wears the vulture cap, cow's horns, and disk of the moon, surmounted by the step-shaped throne of her husband Osiris.

7. Khnemu has a ram's h= ead, and a tall cap with feathers. He is identified as Amen-Khnem with the Greek Zeus Ammon.

8. Min, a mummy, the ri= ght hand uplifted behind him, and supporting a scourge or flail.

[154] ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION.

9. Khonsu, the moon; is= often represented with the moon's disk on a hawk's head.

10. Maat, the goddess of truth, has a single feather rising from her head.

11. Mut wears the vultu= re cap, with the double crown, or has a vulture's head.

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION. [155]

12. Neith, the goddess = of Saïs in the Delta; wears sometimes a shuttle on her head, sometimes the crown of Lower Egypt.<= /p>

13. Nephthys has a symb= ol of her name (Nebt-het) on her head, and the vulture cap.

[156] ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION.

14. Osiris, a mummy, we= aring the crown of Upper Egypt, sometimes with, sometimes without ostrich feathers: and holding the crook and scourge, eith= er alone or combined with the sceptre.

15. Ubastet (Bast) has a cat's head, crowned with a disk and asp. Sekhemet or Pakhet is similar, but= has the head of a lioness.

16. Ptah, a mummy holdi= ng a sceptre compounded of the Tat, = or emblem of stability, the Ankh, = or emblem of life, and the User, or emblem of power.

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION. [157]

17. Ra, the midday sun: hawk-headed, crowned with a disk and asp.

18. Geb or Seb has a go= ose on his head: represents the primeval earth.

19. Thoth, the god of letters, and recorder of the court of Osiris, judge of the dead; has an ibis head, sometimes surmounted with a crescent moon and feather: holds a pen and tablet, or pen and palm branch.

[158] ANCIENT EGYPTIAN RELIGION.

20. Tmu, Atmu, or Nefer= -Atmu, the setting sun; wears long hair crowned with a lotus, or a plume, or the double crown of Egyp= t.

XIII. - ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART.

1. Old Egyptia= n.

Archaeology. - The monumental remains of= Egypt c= onsist of temples and tombs.

The Egyptian Temple= was not a place of public worship like a Christian church. It was an edifice erected by a king, either as a funerary chapel to his tomb, or in honour of some divinity, sometimes of a triad of divinities, to whom he wished to pay special homage, either in return for benefits conferred, or in the hope of future favours. This is shown by the sculptures on the walls, in all of whi= ch the king is the principal subject. He wages war with the enemies at Egypt and brings them home captive; or he offers, in times of peace, gifts and sacrifices. The prayers are all recited in his name, and he leads the processions in which are carried the statues and emblems of the divinities.= The temples are always built of stone, and surrounded by a

ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART. [159] =

high and massive crude-brick enclosure, w= hich shut out from the public gaze all that took place inside. The following diagrams will show the various plans and arrangements most usual in Egyptia= n temples of the later periods: -

Fig. 1 is a simple form of a tem= ple, consisting of (bhb) the dromos or avenue of sphinxes, sss, three pylo= ns, a a a: the pronaos or portico, d; and the adytum (sêkos) or sanctuary, e, which was ei= ther isolated, or occupied the whole of the naos, as in Fig. 2. eee are screens, reaching halfway up the c= olumns, as seen in Fig. 3. In the adytu= m (e, Fig. 2) is an altar, f. W W. the cru= de-brick wall of the temenos, "grove," or sacred enclosure. Fig. 4: a, the pylon; b. th= e avenue without sphinxes; cc, screens; d, pronaos or portico; = e, the hall of assembly; f, transv= erse anteroom, or pro??kos, a sort of transept; g. the central adytum, or sêkos; hh, side adyta. Fig. 5: a, pylon; b, avenue of sphinxes; = cc, obelisks; dd, propyla or pyrami= dal towers of propylaeum; e, propyl= aeum, area, or vestibule; ff, statues= of the king; gg, inner towers with staircases leading to the top, as in dd;

[160] ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART.

h, inner vestibule: ii, screens from pillar to pillar, forming a sort at j anteroom or portico to k, the hall of assem= bly; l, transept; m, central adytum; nn, side adyta. Fig. 6: a, raised hypaethral building of columns and connecting screens, with ste= ps leading to it from within b, the dromos; the rest of Fig. 5 to l, the in= ner hall, which has several small chambers at the side; o= , an isolated adytum, with a pedestal in the middle for holding the sacred ark of the deity; p, qq, nnn, three adyt= a and other chambers. All behind the pron= aos, or portico, is called the naos,= which includes the sêkos within= it, and answers to the cella of Gre= ek temples.

Fig. 7 shows bb, the pyramidal towers (usually called pylons), with a, the entrance-gate (which ought to be called the pylon) between them; hh, the colossal figures; gg, the flag-staffs; f, a torus that runs up the wall a= nd under the cornice; c, fillet of= the cornice.

The Tombs of the Old Egyptians were always situated either in the desert or in the si= de of a mountain. The Egyptian of all ages looked upon his tomb as a place of = abode. Numerous passages in papyri

ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART. [161]

testify to the care with which in the lif= etime of every great man his eternal dwelling was prepared.

In the early period it consisted of three= parts: - 1. An exterior building (A), containing one or more chambers: 2. A vertic= al pit (B): and 3. The vault (C), generally excavated at right angles to the p= it, in which was placed the sarcophagus containing the body (D). The entrance to the vault or chamber is usually found sealed by brickwork. When this is fou= nd intact, it is a sign that the tomb has not been violated by tomb robbers. T= he outer covering was usually in the form of what has been called a mastaba, the best illustrations of= which may be seen at Pyramids themselves are, there is now no doubt, royal tombs, exactly similar in construction and arrangement, only on a gigantic scale, = to the other tombs by which they are always surrounded. (See further, p. 164.)= The tombs at Sakkâra and Beni Hasan give the most complete idea of the interior arrangement. The entrance varies in its proportions from a simple doorway to a highly ornamented façade, according to the rank and importance of the owner of the tomb. On the lintel is an inscription, setti= ng forth the name and titles of the deceased, followed by an invocation addres= sed to Anubis, the guardian of tombs, in which he is prayed, 1. To accord to the person named propitious funeral rite, and a good burial-place in the cemete= ry after a long and happy life: 2. To be favourably disposed towards the decea= sed in his journey through the regions beyond the tomb: and 3. To secure to him through all eternity the proper paying of what the text calls "funerea= l offerings."

m=

[162] ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART.

This invocation is followed by a list of = these funereal offerings, and of the anniversaries on which they are to be paid. = It is to be noted that all the scenes sculptured on the walls of the chamber contained in this exterior building have reference to those three subjects = of invocation. The chambers vary in number and size; sometimes there is only one. They ser= ved the purpose of mortuary chapels, in which the relatives of the deceased and= the priests attached to the service of the cemetery celebrated, on the annivers= ary festivals mentioned in the inscription over the door, certain ceremonies in honour of the dead, and offered the appropriate gifts. The walls were cover= ed with sculptures or paintings representing the scenes in which the deceased person had been accustomed to pass his life; ending with the last act at wh= ich he may be said to have assisted in this world, the transport of his mummied body to the place of burial. The tables of offerings, which no doubt also formed part of the furniture of the chambers, are depicted on the walls cov= ered with the gifts of meat, fruits, bread, and wine, which had to be presented = in kind. At the end of the principal chamber was a stela, containing what might be called the epitaph of the decea= sed. Under the Ancient Empire these stel= ae are quadrangular stones, often of large size, and sculptured so as to repre= sent the exterior of a temple of the period. The statues of the defunct are often found concealed in one of the chambers. They were generally placed in a sor= t of corridor contrived in the thickness of one of the outer walls, and excluded from all external communication. Sometimes, however, a small opening in one= of the walls of the principal room indicates the presence of a shaft reaching = to the spot where the statues arc concealed, and through which the scent of incense might pass.

The entrance to the pit, which forms the = second part of the tomb, is found either in one of the chambers or some hidden cor= ner of the outer monument. The upper part, dug through the overlying stratum of sand, is cased with stones, the remainder being excavated out of the rock. These pits vary from 10 to 30 yards in depth, are vertical in direction, an= d of square or rectangular form. Those that have not previously boon opened have been found filled with a hard cement composed of stones, sand, and earth. At the bottom of the pit appears on one side a constructed stone wall. This cl= oses the entrance to the third part of the tomb, the sepulchral chamber.

In this sepulchral chamber, hollowed out = of the rock, lay the mummied body, protected from all probable chances of violatio= n by the solid stone sarcophagus, the cavern hewn deep into the rock, and the pit filled with compact débris, and with its entrance concealed from view.

The principle of construction in the roya= l tombs at Bibân el-Mulûk at Thebes is entirely different. Here there is no mastaba, and no exterior chambers in which the surviving relations met at certain seasons to pay their respects to the dead. The "Tombs of the Kings&quo= t; are all excavated out of the rock, and consist of long inclined passages, w= ith here and there halls and small chambers, penetrating to a greater or less d= istance into the heart of the mountain. Once the royal mummy was safely deposited in its resting-place the entrance was built up and the surrounding rock levell= ed, so as to leave no trace of the existence of the tomb. The place of the mastaba, or outer

ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART. [163]=

chapel, was taken by a temple built on th= e edge of the desert, nearer the river. Here, as in a cenotaph, the memory of the = king was preserved and worshipped. Thus the Ramesseum would be, as it were, the = mastaba of the tomb of Ramses II.; Medînet Habû, of the tomb of Ramses III.; Kûrna, of the t= omb of Ramses I., and so on. The walls of the entrance and passages are covered with quotatio= ns from the Book of the Dead, and representations of religious subjects. =

With regard to Egyptian Architecture generally, one of the most noticeable peculiaritie= s is the unvarying badness and weakness of the foundations upon which the most colossal buildings are raised. A new temple was usually erected on the top = of an uncleared and heterogeneous mass of stones and débris belonging to its superseded predecessor, usually with little care or forethought. The wo= nder is, not that the temples have lasted so long and are so perfect, but that t= hey are not more perfect than they are. In the climate of Egypt a= great granite temple ought, apart from purposeful destruction, to have remained intact to this day. When it has not, the cause is to be sought in weak foundations, or no foundations at all, properly speaking. In actual constru= ction the Egyptian temple is, of course, primitive, being, so to speak, merely a development of Stonehenge: two long ston= es set up on end with another across them on top. This is the simple trilithon form out of which the grandiose naves and colonnades of Thebes have grown. The Arch was unknown in purely Egyptian temple architecture: at Dêr el-Bâhari a false arch or vault is found; but the true arch= was used in tomb construction as early as the III. Dynasty (at Rakakna, p. 355, for ins= tance). The Egyptian pylon form, with i= ts cavetto cornice and tongue-mouldin= g, and its rounded newel, angle-bead or to= rus at the corners, is very interesting, as it is evidently a survival in stone= of the most ancient wattle-and-daub hut-building: the moulded cornice represen= ts the outspreading tops of the reeds of which the walls of the primeval hut w= ere built; the angle-bead with its pointed cross-bands represents the original binding of the corners of the reed hut.

The opinions formerly hold as to the earl= y Egyptian arts of Sculpture and Painting have been much modified = by recent discoveries. The first artists were not tied to an arbitrary canon of proportion, but were desirous of representing what they saw as exactly as possible. One of the oldest paintings yet found is that of a flock of geese= pasturing, now in the Museum at Cairo. It comes from a tomb at Mêdûm. We have now portrait figures, reliefs, &c., of the I. and II. Dyna= sties. Very soon conventionality begins to appear, and the statues of Khafra, admirable in their skilful execution, show this. Rigid laws of proportion w= ere in use as early as the XII. Dynasty, but were varied under the XXII. Dynast= y. Individuality was by degrees completely lost, and we are by far more certai= n of the actual likeness of Nefert, under the IV. Dynasty, than of that of Cleopatra, though as late as the reigns of the XXVI. Dynasty portraiture continued to be a living art. In bas-relief, always a favourite art with the Egyptians, several styles may be found together. At Mêdûm and Sakkâra, that is, under the Ancient Empire, a very low relief was pre= ferred. Under the XI. Dynasty, at Dêr el-Bâhari, a remarkably high and rounded relief, delicately coloured, was used. The XVII= I. and XIX. Dynasty reliefs

[164] ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART.

at Dêr el-Bâhari and Abydos are lower. = As early as the time of the IV. Dynasty a kind of incised relief was introduced. It = is almost peculiar to Egypt, where the strong light of a cloudless sky renders greater definition unnece= ssary. The figures are in relief, but the surrounding stone is not cut away. Under= the Ptolemies this cavo-rilievo sty= le prevailed more and more; and the latest and poorest sculptures - at Edfû and De= ndera, for example - are thus executed. In the oldest tombs a kind of coloured inl= ay was sometimes, but sparingly, used, the outline being wholly cut out and fi= lled in with an enamel. Such are the decorations of the tomb of Nefer-Maat at Mêdûm, now almost wholly defaced. It was also revived under Ram= ses II., and examples have recently been discovered of his time at Tell el-Yah&= ucirc;dîya, near Cairo. The most elaborate paintings are on the plastered walls of the Tombs of the Kin= gs at Bibân el-Mulâk; but the style of those executed for the fami= ly of hereditary governors buried at Beni Hasan, though it is comparatively simple, is more pleasing.

In the Goldsmith's Art the excellence of very early work is remarkable. The jewellery, belonging to the princesses from Dâhshûr and to Queen Aah-hetep= , in the Cairo Museums show, both taste in colour and design, as well as consumm= ate skill in workmanship. Metal-work was much-developed under the Pharaohs of the Mid= dle Empire, and retained its vitality to a late period. Bronze statuettes of great beau= ty were made even down to Roman times. Pottery was another manufacture in which the ancient Egyptians excelled at all peri= ods; the finest examples of glazed faïence occurring under the XII., XVIII.= and XXVI. Dynasties. Light-blue faience was in use as early as the I. Dynasty. = The Egyptians were also acquainted with true Glass from an early time. Cabinet-work with rare woods inlaid was also an Egyptian speciality. <= /p>

In the art of Quarrying the Egyptians have never been excelled. The temple or tomb near the Sphinx contains blocks of granite 18 ft. in length, brought f= rom Syênê, yet the date of the building cannot be later than the IV. Dynasty. The great quarries of Tûra and Masâra, and of Silsilis, are in their way = as wonderful as the buildings, and should be visited by every traveller. =

2. Coptic.

The conversion of Christianity worked a c= omplete change in the style of art. Most of the ancient buildings were in some parts converted for use as churches, either by covering existing sculptured walls with plaster, painted with figures of saints, &c., by introducing, as at Medînet Habû, a basilican type of structure within an existing ancient building, or by building new structures which seem to have been, in their earliest form, basilican in type, the architectural details being der= ived chiefly from Byzantine sources. The fire of persecution through which the (= Christians so frequently passed expended some of its force in the ruin of their church= es, and, as a result, those that remain have been so much rebuilt that the orig= inal basilican plan is hard to make out. The introduction of domes also affected= the buildings not a little, columns giving way to solid piers, which were neces= sary to carry arches and domes. It must not, however, be forgotten that the architects of some of the principal Saracenic buildings were Copts, and tha= t, were it not for the poverty of the Copts when they

ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART. [165]

had to repair their shattered buildings, = we should probably see no marked difference between the Christian and Saracenic details. The woodwork shows us best that there was not any difference in st= yle between Saracens and Copts.

3. Saracenic.<= o:p>

In no country did Saracenic art reach so = high a point of excellence as in Egypt, and there are fortunately still many monuments left there to prove it, thou= gh some of them, alas! are fast falling to decay. All the important examples a= re at Cairo, few buildings worth notice being found in other parts of the country. They date from the = building of the city in 973 down to the Turkish conquest in 1517. An excellent accou= nt of the history of Arab art in Egypt is given in Stanley Lane Poole's work on 'The Art of the Saracens in Egypt,'= which should be studied by those who are interested in the question. <= /span>

The edifices in which the chief and characteristic features of Saracenic Architecture are displayed are the Mosques. Those may be roughly cla= ssified according to three types: -

1. The first is quadrangular in plan, wit= h a large open court surrounded by arcades, or roofed colonnades - the side tow= ards Mecca b= eing more spacious than the others, and containing 3, 4, or 5 parallel rows of columns, or piers and arches, as compared with a single row on the other th= ree sides. This is the most ancient and characteristic type of mosque; but it i= s reproduced under the succeeding dynasties. The Mosques of 'Amr and Tûlûn m= ay be taken as examples (see pp. 134, 118).

2. The second type is developed during the epoch of the Mameluke dynasties, and is cruciform in plan. A court forms the centre, the four sides of which are occupied by deep recesses; while in pla= ce of the arcades, or porticoes, are four deep niches with plain pointed vault= ing. The recesses on the Mecca and its opposite side (especially the former) are larger and deeper than th= ose to the N. and S. In the angles formed by the arms of the cross, are often l= ofty domed chambers, the burial places of the founders and their families; the o= ther angles are filled in with rooms connected with the dome chambers. The Domes rising above the tomb chambers are conspicuous for their grace of form and decoration. The Mosque of Sultan Hasan is the most stately example of the cruciform type; the Mosques of El-Ghûri and Kâit Bey are equally typical (see pp. 114, 109, 153). In the smaller ones the central court was frequently roofed over and crowned with a lantern light. =

8. The third type was transported from Co= nstantinople to Cairo, and is evolved from the Church of Santa Sophia. The little domed Mos= que of Sulêman Pasha in the Citadel is an excellent example, whilst the larg= est of these Turkish introductions is the conspicuous mosque, also in the Citad= el, of Mohammed Ali.

In the numerous mosques of Cairo there are of course very various modifications of the types, and others which cannot be classified. Some con= sist merely of rectangular buildings, entirely roofed, and lit by windows. Conne= cted with many of the mosques are colleges (medressa) and schools (kullâb), libraries, hospitals, almshouses, and Dervish monasteries, drinking fountains (sebîl), &c. But most of = these, except the sebîls and small schools, are in a state of dilapidation. =

[166] ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART.

$$$ The following terms may be found usef= ul as explaining the essential features of a mosque: -

Hôsh or Sâhn el-Gâmi', the open court. Mihrâb, or more commonly Kibla, the niche, situated in the principal wall, in the direction of Mecca. Mambar, the pulpit of wood or stone, invariably placed immediately to the right or = S. of the kibla. Dikka, a platform with parapet, generally supported by four columns; or introduced as a gallery supported by pendentives or otherwise, = in no fixed position; but generally, in the larger mosques, in the lîwân el-kibla. Lîwân el-kibla, the principal portico, or portion of the mosque in which is the kibla; generally raised above the = Sâhn el'Gâmi'. Kursi, the chair or desk for the K= urân. Meydâh, the open tank for ablution; sometimes in the Sâ= hn el-Gâmi', but generally in a side space outside the mosque; usually shaded by a roof = or canopy supported by small columns. = Hanafîya, the place of ablution, with running taps, generally in the Sâhn el-Gâmi' - in large mosques, with canopy. Maksûra, a compartment separ= ated from the main space by screen or otherwise. Kubba, a dome, or chamber with a dome, mausoleum, &c. Medna, a minaret. Mabkh= ara, a tower somewhat similar to a minaret, but without balconies, and containin= g numerous apertures in the upper portion, through which were formerly diffused the fu= mes of incense burned during the hours of prayer, &c. Amûd (pl. Aw&acir= c;mîd), a column. Sharâfa (Sharafâl), the ornamental stones forming t= he parapets. Tarik, the inscriptio= n giving the date of the edifice.

One of the chief features of Arab archite= cture, the Dome; was borrowed from the= Byzantine style, but the Pointed Arch may= have had its origin in Egypt and spread westward through the Saracenic invaders of Eu= rope. The oldest pointed arches are believed to be those in the Mosque of 'Amr in= Old Cairo; but their exact date is doubtful, as that mosque has been so often altered and rebuilt. The earliest building in which pointed architecture oc= curs as a general characteristic is the Mosque of Tûlûn, A.D. 876 (A= .D. 263), though perhaps a somewhat earlier example is seen in the Nilometer of R&oci= rc;da, built fifteen years before in the same reign.

Decoration has always formed an import= ant feature of Saracenic architecture, and no one can fail to be struck with the richne= ss and beauty of the ornamentation lavished on many of the buildings, especial= ly those of the era of the Mameluke sultans. All this ornament, whether fretwo= rk in plaster, as at the Mosque of Kalaûn, or inlay, as at Sultan Hasan,= or carving, as at Kâit Bey, is carried out without the use of natural fo= rms, or the representation of any animal or man. In a few places, us in the black and white painting of the screen in the Mosque of Barkûk, flowers are sparingly employed. Richness of material as porphyry, jasper, turquoise, al= abaster, coloured marbles and granites, ivory, bronze, and even mother-of-pearl were lavished freely on patterns the monotony of which was relieved by the frequ= ent introduction of legends from the Kurân in ornamental bands and border= s, or in plaques of intricate monograms. Stained glass is similarly treated-ve= getable forms being more frequent, and the occasional use of a very conventional peacock, or pheasant, being permitted. The pulpits are usually of wood, and= on them the visitor will often find exquisite specimens of carved ivory, conce= aled under the dirt of ages.

ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART. [167]

$$$ The Domestic Art of the Arabs in Egypt may, like the religious, be studied best in Cairo. A visit should be paid to the Museum of Arab Art in the Bab el-Khalk (p. 1= 24). Some of the private Houses, especially those annexed to ancient offices and inhabited by the shêk= hs of orders, have been very magnificent. Occasionally it is possibly through = the kindness of the inhabitant or owner, to see the interior of such a residenc= e in use. The wall towards the street is blank below except for the door, above which on an upper story are oriel windows of carved woodwork. From these wi= ndows a miniature oriel often projects; the whole window is a roshan, the small projection a mushrebîya, or "place for drink" from shrab, a draught, as in it bottles of porous earthenware filled with water are pla= ced to cool. The interior of one of the older houses always surrounds a court. = On one side, that facing the N., is generally a hall or a makad, having an open front, with two or three lofty arches sup= ported by graceful pillars. These makads, which are usually lined with costly mosaics, tiles, and marble-work, often remain half-ruined or with their arches built up, after the rest of the hou= se has been destroyed. A large chamber for the reception of guests is on the ground-floor, and is called a manda= ra. It is also magnificently ornamented, and has a marble fountain in the centr= e. The design and ornamentation of those fountains are of the greatest beauty = and intricacy. The windows are filled with stained glass, set in a plaster framework forming a kind of tracery and representing sometimes a bird, sometimes a jar of flowers. A chamber, usually over the gate, and belonging strictly to the Harîm, is sometimes similarly decorated, and the visi= tor who obtains access to one is able to judge of the effect of the roshan from the interior.

The most perfect examples of old Arab art= now remaining are the Illuminated Kurâns exhibited at the Khedivial Libra= ry at Cairo (see p. 123). They were collected from the mosques, where they had been deposited for centuries, and where they suffered much from neglect. Most of them cont= ain some reference to the personages for whom they were written, and the finest prove to belong to the same periods which, under the Mameluke sultans, prod= uced the most beautiful mosques. Unlike the mediaeval MSS. of Western Europe, th= ey are almost without exception, not on parchment or vellum, but on paper. Wri= ting is still pracitised as an ornamental art by the Arabs; the letters of the m= odern alphabet being often twisted and turned, in more handbills and notices, into forms of considerable elegance. The old Kufic alphabet, which stood to the modern letters as Old English stood in our present print, was gradually dis= used after the 14th century; but it is not possible to give any exact date at wh= ich the new characters came into exclusive use.

The beautiful glazed Pottery and Glass, with fragments of which the mounds of Old Ca= iro abound, are not made in Egypt now. The ancient Arab glass-makers have never been excelled. Many very beautiful specimens of the mosque lamps are preserved in the Arab Museum (p. 124). Like architecture and writing, these sumptuous and beautiful works wore produced under the Mameluke sultans of the 13th, 14th, and 15th centur= ies. Some account of the most remarkable examples remaining will be found in Mr.= Nesbitt's work on 'Glass in the South Kensington Museum,' in the appendix to which bo= ok will be found also almost all that is known about the so-called glass coins=

[168] ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART.

which are often seen in Egypt, and which are, accordi= ng to the late Rogers-Bey, really weights for drugs and jewels. The inscriptions = on them are sometimes of great antiquity, but for the most part they belong to= the three prolific centuries mentioned above.

Of Art Manufacture there is now very little, except of a poor and coarse kind.= The tent-makers produce some pleasing patterns in "appliqué," = and sometimes a good modern carpet is to be seen, but not often. The old Arabs excelled in all kinds of needlework; and examples of ancient carpet and sha= wl making, and of embroidery, may be obtained in the bazaar. Good specimens of= old metal-work are rare, and, though it cannot be said that damascening and filigree are extinct, they are carried on with little taste or technical sk= ill.

Jewellery. - Old silver and sometimes= gold bracelets and rings may occasionally be found, and in these, but especially= in the large silver thumb rings, some fine designs occur. Every woman wears a = necklace (ekd) of beads (karras), generally of little value, but occasionally beautiful examples of ancient work may be found. The toke, or necklace of a single piece of silver, with a loop and hook, has become r= arer since the impoverishment of the fellah; but it is very characteristic, and = may have been made in gold as well as in the inferior metals.

The manufacture of Spurious Antiquities must unfortunately be included among Arab arts. So largely is it carried on that the traveller should never buy anyth= ing of value without the opinion of an expert. A well-known factory of spurious scarabaei was founded some years ago at Luxor by a "Frank," and is still carried on. Small figures in black gra= nite are among the most successful of these forgeries, but may usually be detect= ed (1) by the imperfection of the hieroglyphs, (2) by the violations of the ancient canons of proportion. Earthenware scarabaei may be detected similar= ly by the hieroglyphs, which are either too good to be true, being copied from well-known inscriptions, or so bad as to be unreadable, and by the failure = of the forgers to imitate successfully the fine glaze of the ancients.

XIV. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The following classified selection contai= ns the most useful books on Egypt and the Sudan. The most important are distinguished by an asterisk.

1. GENERAL INFORMATION AND HISTORY (ANCIE= NT EGYPT).=

*= Herodotus, Book ii. Strabo, Book xvii. Diodorus, Book i. Plutarch, 'De Iside et Osiride.' *Brugsch, 'Egypt under the Pharaohs' (Murray, 18s.). Rawlinson 'Ancient Egypt' (Story of the Nations,= 5s., Fisher Unwin). Erasmus Wilson, 'The Egypt of the Past' (12s., out of print). *Bud= ge, 'History of Egypt' (Books on Egypt and Chaldaea, 8 vols., 3s. 6d. each, Kegan Paul). *Petrie, Mahaffy, and Milne,= 'History of Egypt' (5 vols., 6s. each, <= st1:place w:st=3D"on">Methuen). *Gardner Wilkinson, 'Manners and Cu= stoms of the Ancient Egyptians' (large edition, 3 vols., £4 4s.; small, 2 vols., 12s., Murray). Erman, 'Life in Ancient Egypt ' (21s. = net, Macmillan). *Maspero, 'Histoire Ancienne des Peuples de l'Orient Classique,' vol. i. (Paris, Hachette; the = French edition should be used). *Mahaffy, 'Empire of the Ptolemies' (12s.= 6d., Macmillan). =

BIBLIOGRAPHY. [169]

2. GENERAL INFORMATION AND HISTORY (MODER= N EGYPT AND THE SUDAN).

*= Lane, 'Modern Egyptians' (2 vols., 13ff., Murray). 'Cairo Fifty Years Ago' (6s., Murray). *Kinglake, 'Eothen' (3s. 6d., Blackwood). Gordon, Lady Duff, 'Last Letters from Egypt' (9s., Macmillan). *Lord Milner, 'England In Egypt' (6s., Arnold). Royle, 'Egyptian Campaigns' 12s., Hurst & Blackett). F. W. Fuller, = 'Egypt and the Hinterland' (10s. 6d., Longmans). R. Talbot Kelly, 'Egypt' (£1 net, Black). John Ward, 'Pyramids and Progress' (7s. 6d. net, Eyre & Spottiswoode); = 'Our Sudan' (£1 1s. net, Murray). *S. Lane Poole, 'History of Mediaeval Egypt= ' (7s. 6d., Methuen). *Lord Cromer, ' Reports on Egypt and the Sudan' (Blue Books, 1s. 3d. each). *Count Gleichen, 'The An= glo-Egyptian Sudan' (2 vols., 17s. 6d. net, Official). *Slatin Pasha, 'Fire and Sword in the Sudan ' (6s., = Arnold). Father Ohrwalder, 'Ten Years' Captivity in the Mahdi's Camp, 1882-92' (6s. and 2s. 6d., Sampson Low= ). *Steevens, 'With Kitchener to Khartum' (6s., Blackwood). *Wingat= e, Sir F. R., 'Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan' (out of print). Edwards, Miss Amelia B., 'Pharaohs, Fellahs, and Explorers' (18s., = Osgoods).

3. GEOGRAPHY.

*= Hogarth, 'The Nearer East' (7s. 6d. net, Frowde). Hanbury Brown, Major, 'The Fayûm and Lake Moeris' (10s. 6d. net, Stanford). Egypt Exploration Fund's 'Atlas of Ancient Egypt.' Boinel-Bey, 'Dictionnaire G&eac= ute;ographique de l'Égypte' (Cairo). Survey Department's Maps. *Lyons, '= Physiography of the River Nile and its Basin.' <= /o:p>

4. LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.

*= Budge, 'The Egyptian Language' (Books on Egypt and Chaldaea, 3s. 6d. Kegan Paul); 'First Steps in Egyptian' (9s.); 'Egyptian Reading-Book' (15s., Kegan Paul). *Erman, 'Egyptian Grammar' (Porta Linguarum Series, 18s., Williams & Norgate). Petrie, Egyptian Tales' (2 vols., = 7s., Methuen). Steindorff, 'Koptische Grammatik' (Porta Linguarum Series, 14s., Williams & Norgate). *Willmore, 'The Spoken Arabic of Egypt' (10s. 6d., Nutt). Dirr, 'C= olloquial Egyptian Arabic Grammar' (4s. n= et, Frowdo). Spitta-Bey, 'Grammatik= des Arabischen Vulgärdialektes von Aegypten'; 'Contes Arabes Modernes.'

6. RELIGIOUS AND SACRED BOOKS.=

*= Budge, 'The Egyptian Religion' (Books on Egypt and Chaldaea, 3s. 6d., Kegan Paul). 'Egyptian Magic' (same series). *Wiedemann, 'Egyptian Religion' (12s. 6d., Grevel). *Budge, 'Book of the Dead: Text, Translation and Vocabulary' (3 vols., £2 10s., Kegan Paul); Transl. only (small edition: Books on Egypt and Chaldaea, 3 vols., 3s. 6d. each, Kegan Paul), 'Egyptian He= aven and Hell' (3 vols., same edition, 3= s. 6d. each). *Butler, 'Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt' (£1 10s., Clarendon Press). *Sale's 'Koran' (3s. 6d., Warne).

6. ARCHAEOLOGY AND ART.=

Hogarth= , 'Authority and Archaeology= ' (16s., Murray). Petrie, 'Methods and Alms in Archaeology' (6s. net, Macmillan). 'Ten Years' Digging in Egypt' (6s., R.T.S.). Maspero, 'Egyptian Archaeology' (10s. 6d., Grevel). * Budge, 'The Mummy' (12s= . 6d., Cambridge Univers-

n

[170] BIBLIOGRAPHY.

sity). Naville, Petrie, Quibell, Garstang, Mace, Randall-Maciver, Newberry, de Garis Davies= , and others, 'Memoires of the Egypt Exploration Fund, Archaeological Survey,= and Egyptian Research Account, etc.= Von Bissing, Daressy, Edgar, Strzygows= ki, Crum, and others: 'General Catalogue of the Cairo Museum.' *Perrot and Chipiez, 'Art of An= cient Egypt' (2 vols., 42s,t Chapman & Hall). Poole, S. = L., 'Saracenic Art' (3s. 6d.).

7. TRAVEL AND SPORT.

*= Lepsius, 'Letters from Egypt, <= st1:country-region w:st=3D"on">Ethiopia, and Sinai' (5s., Bell). *Edwards, Miss Amelia B., 'A Th= ousand Miles up the Nile' (7s. 6d., Routledge).= *Stanley, Dean, 'Sinai and Palestine' (5s. net, Murray). Grogan and Sharp, 'From the Ca= pe to Cairo' (7s. 6d. net, Hurst & Blackett). Shelley= , Capt., 'Birds of Egypt.' [See also 2. General Information, and 6. Archaeology.]

8. FICTION.

*= Lane's 'Arabian Nights.' *About, 'Le F= ellah.' *Kingsley, 'Hypatia.' *Ebers, 'Uarda'; 'An Egyptian Princ= ess.' *Rider Haggard, 'Cleopatra.' *Rider Haggard and Andrew Lang, 'The World's Desire' (Longmans), and other romance= s of less merit. The books of Kingsley, Ebers and Rider Haggard are distinguished for the accuracy of their archaeology, and have thoroughly "caught the spirit" of Ancient Egypt.

MAP [NOT INCLUDED IN THE SCAN - PROBABLY WAS A FOLD OUT MAP]

<= o:p>

NOMES.	CAPITALS.	DEITY.
	Egyptian	Classical and Modern.=
I. Ta-kens<= /span>	Abu<= /p>	Elephantiné	Khnemu (Chnoumis).
II. Utes-her	Dbu<= /p>	Apollinopolis Magna (Edfû)	Heru-behutet.
III. Ten	Nekheb	Eileithyiaspolis (el-K= ab)	Nekhebet (Smithis).
IV. Uaset	Uaset und Annu Kemat<= /span>	<= span lang=3DEN-GB style=3D'font-size:11.0pt;mso-ansi-language:EN-GB'>Thebes, Hermont= his (Luxor and Ermen= t)	Amen-Ra (Amonrasonter = and Mentu)
V. HERUI ("Two Hawks")	Kebt=	Koptos (Kuft)	Min.=
VI. Aati	Ta-en-tarert	Tentyris (Dendera)	Het-Heru (Hathor).
VII. Seseshet ("Sistrum")	Het-seseshet	Diopolis Parva (Hou)	Hathor.
VIII. Aht	Teni=	Thinis (el-Birba)=	An-her (Onouris).=
IX. Ma-min (?)	Apu<= /p>	Panopolis (Akhmî= m)	Min.=
X. Uatjet	Tebt=	Aphroditopolis (Itfu)<= o:p>	Hathor.
XI. Set	Shas-hetep<= /span>	Hypselis (Shotb)<= /o:p>	Khnemu.
XII. Du-heft ("Serpent Mountain")	Nut-ent-bak=	Hierakonpolis	Heru (Horus).
XIII. Amef-khent<= /o:p>	Saut=	Lykopolis (Asyût= )	Uapuaut.
XIV. Amef-peh	Kesi=	Kusae (el-Kusîya= )	Hathor.
XV. Uenet ("Hare&= quot;)	Khmenuu	Hermopolis Magna (Eshmunên)	Tehuti (Thoth).
XVI. Mahetj ("Oryx")	Hebnu	....=	Horus.
XVII. Anpu ("Jackal")	Ka-sa	Kynonpolis (el-Kê= ;s)	Anpu (Anubis).
XVIII. Sepet	Het-bennu	Hipponon (el-Hiba)	Anubis.
XIX. Bu-tjamui ("= Land of Two Sceptres")	Pa-matja	Oxyrrhynchus (Behnes&a= circ;)	Set.=
XX. Am-khent	Henensuten<= /span>	Herakleopolis Magna (Ahnasya)	Her-Shefi (Harsaphes).
XXI. Am-peh=	Smen-Her	Nilopolis (?)	Khnemu.
XXII. Maten ("Knife")	Tep-ahet	Aphroditopolis (Atf&ic= irc;h)	Hathor.